What to Do Immediately After Being Scammed in the UAE

The first few hours after a scam can be important, particularly where the scam involves a bank transfer, card payment, account takeover, or stolen personal information.

Take the following steps as soon as possible:

1. Contact your bank or payment provider if money has been transferred or an unauthorized transaction has occurred.
2. Block or secure affected accounts, cards, and digital wallets if your financial or login information has been compromised.
3. Preserve all evidence before deleting messages, blocking the scammer, or closing an account.
4. Report the scam to the appropriate police or government channel.
5. Seek legal advice if the financial loss is significant, the identity of the scammer is known, or the matter has developed into a criminal or civil dispute.

Do not continue communicating with the scammer simply because they promise to return your money. Further communication can create additional risks, particularly if the person asks for another payment, OTP, password, or identity document.

UAE Laws That Apply to Scams and Online Fraud

Being scammed in the UAE does not automatically mean that one specific criminal article applies to every case. The applicable law depends on how the deception occurred, what the scammer obtained or attempted to obtain, whether electronic means were used, and the evidence available to establish the conduct.

Fraud Under the UAE Penal Code

Under Article 451 of Federal Decree-Law No. 31 of 2021 on the Crimes and Penalties Law, fraud can arise where a person uses fraudulent practices, a false name, or a false capacity to obtain movable property or a written instrument, obtain a signature, or cause the cancellation or alteration of such an instrument, with the intention of deceiving the victim and causing them to hand it over. The provision also covers certain dealings involving property where the person knows they do not own the property or have the right to dispose of it and the conduct causes harm.

This means that a scam does not necessarily have to involve a sophisticated hacking operation. A false identity, misleading representation, fraudulent transaction, fake investment opportunity, or other deliberate deception may potentially give rise to criminal liability when the legal elements of fraud are established.

The evidence is important. A victim may need to demonstrate what the scammer represented, what the victim was led to believe, what was handed over or transferred, and how the alleged deception caused the loss. Relevant evidence may include contracts, invoices, bank-transfer records, messages, emails, advertisements, phone numbers, account details, and other communications.

Online and Electronic Fraud

When fraudulent conduct is carried out through an information network, electronic information system, or information technology means, the UAE’s cybercrime legislation may also become relevant.

Article 40 of Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021 on Countering Rumors and Cybercrimes addresses obtaining movable property, a benefit, a document, or a signature through fraudulent electronic methods, including the use of a false name or identity. The provision establishes imprisonment of at least one year and/or a fine ranging from AED 250,000 to AED 1 million for conduct falling within its scope.

This can be relevant to scams conducted through fake websites, social media accounts, messaging applications, fraudulent online advertisements, impersonation, electronic payment schemes, or other technology-based deception. The fact that a scam happened online, however, does not by itself establish liability under every cybercrime provision; the specific conduct and evidence must be assessed against the statutory requirements.

What Must Be Proved in a Scam Case?

A scam report is not simply a matter of showing that money was lost. The circumstances surrounding the transaction and the alleged deception can determine whether the conduct amounts to a criminal offence.

Depending on the case, the investigation may examine:

• The representation made to the victim: What exactly did the suspected scammer say, promise, advertise, or claim?
• The identity or capacity used: Did the person use a false name, impersonate another person or organization, or claim an authority or position they did not have?
• The method of deception: How was the victim allegedly persuaded to transfer money, provide property, disclose information, or sign a document?
• The financial or other loss: What money, property, benefit, document, or signature was obtained or attempted to be obtained?
• The intention behind the conduct: Evidence may be examined to determine whether the conduct involved the intention to deceive rather than merely a genuine transaction that later failed.
• Electronic evidence: For online scams, investigators may examine messages, emails, websites, account information, transaction records, device data, and other digital evidence.
• The connection between the conduct and the loss: The evidence should establish how the alleged deception resulted in the victim handing over the relevant money, property, document, or other benefit.

For this reason, a failed business deal, unpaid debt, delayed service, or contractual disagreement is not automatically the same as criminal fraud. The distinction between a genuine civil or commercial dispute and conduct containing the elements of a criminal offence can require careful legal assessment.

How Al Ramsy Advocates Can Help Scam Victims

If you have lost money through an online, financial, investment, impersonation, or other scam, Al Ramsy Advocates can assess the circumstances of the incident, review the available evidence, and advise you on the appropriate legal response under UAE law.

Our lawyers can assist with evaluating the potential criminal aspects of the conduct, organizing relevant evidence, preparing legal complaints, communicating with the appropriate authorities, and considering available compensation or recovery options. Where the matter involves electronic communications or digital evidence, we can also assess the legal issues arising from messages, transaction records, online accounts, and other relevant material.

If you have already reported the scam, received a police or prosecution reference, been contacted by the suspected party, or discovered that the matter involves multiple jurisdictions, obtaining legal advice early can help you understand the next procedural steps and protect your position.

For urgent assistance, our criminal lawyers can advise you on the appropriate response based on the specific facts of your case.

Where to Report a Scammer in the UAE

The UAE provides several official reporting channels. The appropriate channel can depend on the emirate and the nature of the incident.

The UAE Government confirms that cybercrimes can be reported through the MOI eCrimes platform, Dubai Police’s eCrime website, Abu Dhabi Police Aman, My Safe Society, or the nearest police station. For emergencies, the official government platform directs the public to call 999.

How to Report a Scam Through Dubai Police eCrime

If the incident occurred online in Dubai, Dubai Police’s eCrime service is one of the principal reporting channels.

The service can be used for cybercrime-related incidents such as online fraud and other offenses committed through digital channels. Dubai Police also launched the eCrime Hub, an awareness platform explaining common cybercrime and fraud methods and how members of the public can protect themselves.

When making a report, provide as much factual information as possible, including:

• The scammer’s phone number or username
• Website or social media profile used
• Bank account or payment details provided by the scammer
• Date and time of the communication
• Amount transferred or lost
• Screenshots of conversations
• Emails and relevant attachments
• Transaction receipts
• Any identification information provided by the scammer
• Details of how the scam was carried out

How to Report Cybercrime Through the UAE Ministry of Interior

The UAE Ministry of Interior also provides an eCrimes reporting platform. The UAE Government identifies the MOI eCrimes platform as one of the official channels for reporting cybercrime online.

This can be relevant where the incident involves online fraud, hacking, impersonation, or another form of cybercrime and the matter is not limited to a particular Dubai-based reporting route.

If you are unsure which reporting channel applies to your circumstances, you can also report the matter to the nearest police station.

How to Report a Scam in Abu Dhabi

For incidents in Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi Police provides the Aman service, which operates as a confidential channel for reporting security information and suspicious activity.

Aman is different from making a formal criminal report. Abu Dhabi Police states that Aman receives security information rather than criminal reports. If you want to make a formal police report, you should go to the nearest police station or use the appropriate official reporting channel.

The Aman service in Abu Dhabi is available 24/7 and allows information to be provided confidentially. Abu Dhabi Police currently lists the Aman number as 8002626.

How My Safe Society Can Be Used to Report Online Scams

The federal Public Prosecution’s My Safe Society application provides another reporting channel for crimes or suspicious activities occurring on social media.

The application allows users to submit reports confidentially and attach supporting evidence such as photographs, videos, audio recordings, and URLs.

This can be particularly relevant when the scam involves a social media account, suspicious online activity, or content that should be brought to the attention of the Public Prosecution.

What Evidence Should You Collect Before Reporting a Scam?

Evidence can help authorities understand what happened and identify the individuals or accounts involved.

Create a complete record of the incident rather than keeping only the final message or transaction.

Save the Scam Communications

Keep:

• WhatsApp, emails and SMS messages
• Social media conversations
• Voice messages and screenshots
• Usernames and profile links
• Website URLs
• Advertisements or listings used by the scammer

Do not crop screenshots unnecessarily if doing so removes information that could help establish the identity, date, time, or context of the communication.

Keep Financial Records

If money was involved, preserve:

• Bank transfer receipts
• Transaction reference numbers
• Card transaction records
• Bank statements
• Account numbers or IBANs provided by the scammer
• Cryptocurrency transaction information, where applicable

You should also record the date, time, amount, and method of every payment.

Preserve Identity and Contact Information

Save every identifying detail available, including:

• Telephone numbers
• Email addresses
• Social media usernames
• Website domains
• Bank account details
• Names used by the scammer
• Company names or logos used to appear legitimate
• Copies of identification documents sent to or received from the scammer

Even information that appears insignificant can become relevant when combined with other evidence.

Contact Your Bank Immediately if Money Was Transferred

If a scam resulted in an unauthorized transaction or fraudulent use of a payment instrument, reporting the incident to your bank should happen immediately and should not wait for the police report.

The UAE Central Bank’s current consumer-protection requirements require licensed financial institutions to maintain responsive channels for reporting loss, theft, fraud, or misuse involving accounts, cards, and digital instruments. They must also have procedures for documenting reports and taking steps such as blocking affected accounts or replacing cards where appropriate.

The Central Bank also maintains official information concerning fraudulent communications that falsely use the CBUAE’s name, logo, address, or the identity of its employees.

If your bank account has been compromised, ask the bank what immediate steps are available to prevent additional transactions while the incident is investigated.

Reporting a Scammer Without Knowing Their Real Identity

You do not necessarily need to know the scammer’s real name or physical location before reporting the incident. The information already available to you can help authorities identify the person, account, device, or transaction connected to the alleged scam.

When making a report, provide as much identifying and transactional information as possible, including:

• Phone numbers used by the suspected scammer
• Bank account or payment details
• Social media usernames and profile URLs
• Email addresses and relevant email headers
• Website or online advertisement URLs
• IP or other technical information, if available
• Transaction references and payment receipts
• Screenshots, messages, emails, voice notes, and other communications

Even information that appears incomplete can be relevant when combined with other evidence. Do not delete conversations or alter screenshots simply because you do not know the person’s real identity. The authorities can determine what further information may be required as part of the investigation.

You should also avoid attempting to identify, track, threaten, or confront the suspected scammer yourself. Trying to access their accounts or obtain information through unauthorized methods could create separate legal issues and may compromise the evidence relating to your original complaint.

What Happens After a Scam Report Is Filed?

The process after reporting a scam depends on the nature of the incident, the available evidence, the authorities involved, and whether the matter involves financial transactions, electronic communications, identity misuse, or other criminal conduct.

Authorities may review the initial complaint and supporting documents before requesting additional information or evidence. Depending on the circumstances, the investigation may involve examining communications and electronic records, reviewing transaction information, identifying accounts or individuals connected to the incident, and referring the matter to the competent Public Prosecution or judicial authority where appropriate.

The filing of a report does not automatically guarantee that the stolen money will be recovered or that a particular criminal outcome will follow. Recovery may depend on factors such as whether the funds can be traced or frozen, where the money was transferred, whether the suspected offender can be identified, where that person or relevant assets are located, and what evidence can be established during the investigation.

For significant or complicated cases, particularly those involving substantial financial losses, identity theft, unauthorized account access, threats, multiple transactions, or suspected organized activity, obtaining legal advice can help you understand the available remedies and the appropriate steps after the initial report.

Al Ramsy Advocates can assist with reviewing the circumstances of the scam, organizing and assessing the available evidence, advising on the appropriate legal route, and representing clients where further criminal or compensation proceedings are required.

Legal Options for Scam Victims in the UAE

A scam can involve more than simply filing a police report. Depending on the circumstances, the victim may need assistance with criminal complaints, electronic evidence, financial recovery, or related civil proceedings.

If the matter involves online fraud, Our criminal lawyers can assist with understanding the applicable UAE criminal law, preparing a legal response, and dealing with the relevant authorities.

Where the case involves electronic fraud or another cybercrime, Our cybercrime lawyers can help assess the digital evidence, the alleged conduct, and the legal issues arising from the incident.

If the scam has resulted in a broader financial or contractual dispute, obtaining legal advice can also help determine whether additional civil remedies may be available alongside the criminal complaint.

Common Mistakes to Avoid After a Scam

Victims sometimes make the situation more difficult by taking immediate action without first preserving evidence or securing their accounts. Even if you are under pressure to recover your money quickly, avoid actions that could result in lost evidence, additional financial loss, or further exposure to the scammer.

Avoid:

• Deleting the conversation with the scammer: Keep WhatsApp chats, emails, SMS messages, and social media conversations intact so they can be reviewed as part of the report.
• Sending additional money to recover the original payment: Scammers may claim that a further payment, processing fee, tax, or verification charge is required before your money can be returned.
• Sharing OTPs, passwords, or banking information: Never provide additional security credentials, even if the person claims to be a bank employee, police officer, or government official.
• Giving the scammer further identity documents: Avoid sending copies of your Emirates ID, passport, bank card, or other personal documents after the scam has been identified.
• Publicly accusing the suspected scammer without legal advice: Posting allegations or personal information online can create separate legal issues, particularly where the identity of the suspected person has not been established.
• Altering screenshots or digital evidence: Keep original messages, screenshots, transaction records, and files in their original form where possible. Do not edit or manipulate evidence before submitting it.
• Attempting to access the scammer’s accounts: Do not try to hack, track, threaten, or retaliate against the suspected scammer yourself, even if you believe you have identified them.
• Waiting unnecessarily before contacting the bank about an unauthorized transaction: If money has been transferred without authorization or your financial information has been compromised, contact the bank or payment provider as soon as possible.

The safest approach is to preserve the evidence, secure your accounts, notify the relevant financial institution, and report the incident through an official UAE channel. Keeping a clear record of what happened, when it happened, and what information or money was involved can also make it easier for the authorities and your legal adviser to assess the case.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do I report a scammer in the UAE?

You can report cybercrime through official UAE channels including the MOI eCrimes platform, Dubai Police eCrime, Abu Dhabi Police Aman service, or the federal Public Prosecution’s My Safe Society application. You can also report a crime at the nearest police station.

How do I report an online scam in Dubai?

Online scams in Dubai can be reported through Dubai Police’s eCrime service. You should provide available evidence such as messages, phone numbers, social media profiles, transaction records, and other information identifying the scam.

Can I report a scammer if I do not know their real name?

Yes. You can provide the information you have, including a telephone number, social media account, email address, bank account details, website, or transaction information. The authorities can assess the available information as part of the investigation.

What evidence do I need to report a scam?

Useful evidence can include chat logs, screenshots, emails, phone numbers, social media profiles, website URLs, bank statements, transaction receipts, beneficiary details, payment references, and any documents or identity information provided by the scammer.

Should I Block the Scammer Before Reporting Them?

If the scammer is still contacting you, preserve the relevant communications and evidence before blocking the account or number. If there is an immediate threat or risk of further financial loss, however, protecting your accounts and stopping unauthorized transactions should take priority. If you have already blocked the scammer, keep any screenshots, transaction records, URLs, account information, and other evidence that you still have.

Should I contact my bank after an online scam?

Yes. If money was transferred or an unauthorized transaction occurred, contact your bank or payment provider immediately. UAE banking requirements provide channels for customers to report fraud, loss, theft, or misuse involving accounts, cards, and digital payment instruments.

Can a lawyer help me recover money from a scammer in the UAE?

A lawyer can advise you on the legal procedures available based on the circumstances, including criminal complaints, electronic evidence, and potential civil or financial recovery measures. Recovery itself depends on factors such as the available evidence, identification of the offender, location of the funds, and the outcome of the relevant proceedings.

Conclusion

Being scammed can create both immediate financial problems and wider legal concerns, particularly where the incident involves electronic fraud, identity theft, unauthorized transactions, or the misuse of personal information. Acting quickly to secure your accounts, preserve evidence, notify your bank, and make an official report can help establish a clear record of what happened.

Al Ramsy Advocates & Legal Consultants assists individuals and businesses in the UAE with criminal defense and cybercrime matters, including cases involving online fraud, digital evidence, financial scams, and related criminal complaints. If you have lost money to a scam or are involved in a cybercrime investigation, legal advice can help you understand the applicable UAE laws, reporting process, and potential legal remedies based on the circumstances of your case.

The legal position can also depend on what was sent, who received it, whether it was forwarded or published, whether private information was involved, and how the evidence was obtained. WhatsApp messages, screenshots, voice notes, photographs, videos, and other electronic communications may become relevant evidence in a legal dispute or criminal investigation.

WhatsApp Use Under UAE Cybercrime Law

There is no separate UAE statute called a “WhatsApp Law.” Instead, WhatsApp communications are assessed under several pieces of legislation depending on the conduct involved.

The primary criminal framework is Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021 on Countering Rumors and Cybercrimes. The law applies to conduct carried out through information networks, information technology systems, and other electronic means, which can include messaging applications such as WhatsApp.

Other legislation may also become relevant. For example, the UAE Crimes and Penalties Law can apply to underlying criminal conduct, while the Law of Evidence addresses electronic evidence in civil and commercial proceedings. Under Article 53 of Federal Decree-Law No. 35 of 2022, electronic evidence broadly includes data or information generated, stored, extracted, copied, transmitted, reported, or received through information technology that can be retrieved in an understandable form.

This means the legal issue is usually not whether a person used WhatsApp, but what they did through WhatsApp and whether that conduct satisfies the elements of an offence.

Private WhatsApp Messages Can Still Create Legal Liability

A common misconception is that a WhatsApp conversation is legally protected simply because it takes place between two private individuals.

A WhatsApp message can create legal exposure even when it is sent in a private chat rather than posted publicly, depending on its content and the applicable legal provision. Recent UAE legal commentary specifically identifies private messages, screenshots, voice notes, photographs, and shared documents as potential evidence in cybercrime complaints.

This does not mean that every rude, unpleasant, or controversial message is automatically a crime. The content, context, recipient, purpose, method of transmission, and other circumstances must be considered.

For example, a private message containing an alleged threat may raise very different legal issues from an ordinary disagreement between two people. Similarly, forwarding someone’s private photograph may create privacy concerns even if the sender did not originally create the photograph.

Insults, Profanity and Online Defamation

One of the most important WhatsApp-related provisions is Article 43 of Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021.

The provision addresses using an information network, information technology means, or an information system to insult another person or attribute an incident or quality to them that could expose them to punishment or contempt by others.

Sending an insulting or defamatory statement through WhatsApp can therefore result in criminal liability, with Article 43 providing for imprisonment and/or a fine between AED 250,000 and AED 500,000.

The wording and context of the communication matter. A message accusing another person of theft, fraud, dishonesty, professional misconduct, or another serious act may raise defamation concerns, while degrading or offensive language may raise insult-related issues.

The fact that the sender was angry or believed the message was justified does not by itself determine whether the conduct is lawful. The specific wording, circumstances, recipient, and applicable legal defenses must be assessed.

If a WhatsApp dispute involves allegations of reputational harm, our defamation lawyers can assess the communication, surrounding circumstances, and available legal remedies.

Threats, Extortion and Blackmail Through WhatsApp

Threatening messages can create substantially more serious legal consequences when they are used to force another person to do something or refrain from doing something.

Article 42 of the Cybercrimes Law addresses cyberextortion and cyber threats. It provides for imprisonment of up to two years and/or a fine of AED 250,000 to AED 500,000 where a person uses an information network or information technology means to extort or threaten another person to force them to act or refrain from acting. More serious circumstances involving threats to commit a crime or dishonorable acts, together with an explicit or implicit demand, are subject to a significantly higher penalty under the same article.

WhatsApp examples may include:

• Threatening to publish someone’s private photographs unless they pay money
• Threatening to expose confidential information unless someone takes a particular action
• Threatening to damage someone’s reputation to obtain money or another benefit
• Using private information as leverage against another person
• Sending repeated threats intended to force a person to act against their will

The legal classification depends on the actual communication and surrounding circumstances rather than the use of particular words alone.

Recording WhatsApp Calls and Sharing Private Conversations

Privacy is another major area of legal risk. Article 44 of the Cybercrimes Law addresses conduct intended to breach a person’s privacy or the sanctity of their private or family life without consent, outside circumstances permitted by law. It specifically covers acts including intercepting, recording, transmitting, disclosing, or revealing conversations and communications or audio and visual material.

This can become relevant where a person secretly records a WhatsApp call or voice communication and subsequently shares it with another person.

Unauthorized recording or disclosure of private communications can carry imprisonment of at least six months and/or a fine between AED 150,000 and AED 500,000 under Article 44.

The same article also addresses unauthorized photographs and the publication or sharing of images, information, or other material concerning a person’s private or family life.

Sharing Screenshots, Photos and Voice Notes

Taking a screenshot does not automatically make its contents unlawful. The legal risk depends on what the screenshot contains, how it was obtained, why it was shared, and what effect the sharing has.

Potentially problematic situations include:

• Sharing private WhatsApp conversations without authorization
• Publishing someone’s private photographs
• Forwarding voice recordings without the required consent
• Sharing personal information to embarrass or harm another person
• Disclosing confidential workplace communications
• Editing photographs, recordings, or videos to defame or abuse another person

Article 44 is particularly relevant where the conduct involves an invasion of privacy. It also provides a higher penalty where a person uses electronic means to alter or process a recording, image, or footage for the purpose of defaming or abusing another person.

This is why users should not assume that something can be freely forwarded simply because they personally received it.

Forwarding Messages Can Create a Separate Legal Issue

Forwarding content does not necessarily eliminate responsibility simply because someone else created the original message.

The legal assessment depends on the specific provision involved and the role of the person who forwarded the material. A person who knowingly redistributes unlawful content may face legal exposure based on their own conduct.

This is particularly important with defamatory accusations, private photographs, confidential information, threats, and false information. Before forwarding a message to a WhatsApp group or another person, users should consider whether they have a lawful basis to share the material and whether doing so could violate another person’s rights.

Workplace and Business WhatsApp Communications

WhatsApp is widely used for workplace communication in the UAE, including employee groups, customer communication, business negotiations, management instructions, and document sharing.

That convenience does not remove legal obligations.

Article 45 of Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021 addresses the disclosure of confidential information obtained through employment, profession, occupation, or work using information technology means without authorization. The provision carries imprisonment of at least six months and/or a fine between AED 200,000 and AED 1 million, with use of the information for personal or another person’s benefit treated as an aggravating circumstance.

This can become relevant where an employee or professional sends confidential company information through WhatsApp to an unauthorized person.

Examples may include:

• Internal business documents
• Confidential client information
• Financial information
• Commercial strategies
• Private workplace communications
• Information obtained because of a person’s position or employment

A workplace dispute should therefore be handled carefully, particularly where messages contain accusations, confidential information, or personal data.

False Information, Rumors and Harmful Content

WhatsApp can also be used to circulate information beyond the original sender and recipient, particularly through group chats and forwarding.

The Cybercrimes Law contains separate provisions addressing false information, rumors, and other forms of unlawful digital content. Article 52, for example, addresses publishing or circulating false news, rumors, or misleading information in circumstances covered by the provision, with enhanced consequences in specified circumstances such as crises or emergencies.

This means that forwarding a message simply because it came from a friend or another group does not automatically protect the sender from legal consequences.

The legal assessment depends on the content, circumstances, purpose, and applicable provision.

Unsolicited Commercial Messages and WhatsApp Marketing

Businesses also need to distinguish ordinary WhatsApp communication from regulated electronic marketing.

Not every unsolicited WhatsApp message constitutes a cybercrime under Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021. However, businesses using WhatsApp for marketing must comply with the UAE’s applicable telemarketing and consumer-protection rules, as well as other requirements governing electronic communications.

The Cybercrimes Law separately addresses misleading online advertisements and promotions. Article 48 provides for imprisonment and/or a fine between AED 20,000 and AED 500,000 for specified misleading advertising and certain unauthorized digital-currency activities.

Businesses should therefore avoid treating WhatsApp as an unregulated marketing channel simply because it is a private messaging application.

WhatsApp Messages as Evidence in UAE Legal Proceedings

A WhatsApp conversation can become important evidence in a legal dispute or criminal investigation.

The UAE Law of Evidence defines electronic evidence broadly. Article 53 of Federal Decree-Law No. 35 of 2022 covers evidence derived from data or information generated, stored, extracted, copied, transmitted, reported, or received through information technology and retrievable in an understandable form.

In practice, relevant material may include:

• WhatsApp messages
• Screenshots
• Voice notes
• Photographs
• Videos
• Documents sent through WhatsApp
• Chat histories
• Electronic records
• Information relating to the account or device

However, simply possessing a screenshot does not automatically establish every fact alleged by a party. Authenticity, completeness, context, source, and the manner in which the material was obtained can all become relevant.

Preserving the original communication and surrounding context is generally more useful than relying only on isolated screenshots. Recent UAE legal commentary also emphasizes preserving original messages, voice notes, and related digital material when dealing with WhatsApp disputes.

WhatsApp Evidence and Privacy Must Be Considered Together

There is an important distinction between using a message as evidence and obtaining that message unlawfully.

A person may have a legitimate reason to preserve a communication sent directly to them, but that does not automatically give them permission to access another person’s device, intercept private communications, or obtain unrelated private material.

Article 44 of the Cybercrimes Law specifically addresses unauthorized interference with private communications and personal information.

For this reason, anyone preparing a WhatsApp conversation for use in a legal matter should consider not only what the message proves, but also how the message was obtained and whether it can lawfully be relied upon.

Penalties for WhatsApp-Related Offenses in the UAE

There is no single penalty for “using WhatsApp illegally.” The punishment depends on the specific conduct and statutory provision involved.

These are statutory ranges for the identified provisions, not a prediction of the sentence in an individual case. The applicable article, facts, evidence, and procedural circumstances must be assessed separately.

Criminal and Immigration Consequences for Expatriates

For expatriates, a WhatsApp-related criminal conviction can have consequences beyond the fine or imprisonment.

The UAE’s immigration framework allows judicial deportation where a court issues a deportation judgment against a foreigner. Whether deportation applies in a particular criminal case depends on the offense, judgment, and applicable immigration and criminal legislation; it should not be treated as an automatic consequence of every WhatsApp complaint.

Other consequences can also arise depending on the case, including restrictions associated with criminal proceedings and the potential impact of a conviction on a person’s immigration or professional position.

The Three-Month Complaint Period for Certain Offenses

The three-month period mentioned in many UAE legal guides requires an important qualification.

Under Article 11 of Federal Decree-Law No. 38 of 2022 on the Criminal Procedures Law, certain offenses that require a complaint cannot have that complaint admitted after three months from the date the victim becomes aware of the crime and its perpetrator, unless another law provides otherwise. The provision expressly includes insult and slander among the offenses subject to this complaint requirement.

This does not mean that every WhatsApp-related cybercrime must be reported within three months. The applicable deadline depends on the legal classification of the alleged offense and whether it is one of the offenses for which a complaint is required.

Anyone considering a complaint should therefore confirm the applicable procedural deadline rather than relying on a general three-month rule.

Reporting WhatsApp Abuse and Cybercrime in the UAE

The appropriate reporting channel depends on the nature and location of the alleged conduct.

Where a person receives serious threats, extortion, harassment, or other potentially criminal messages, relevant evidence should be preserved and the matter can be reported through the appropriate police or cybercrime channels.

For Dubai-related matters, the authorities may include Dubai Police and its electronic crime reporting channels, while other cases may be handled through the relevant police authority or Public Prosecution.

A complainant should preserve:

• The original WhatsApp conversation
• Screenshots showing the full context
• The sender’s phone number or account details
• Dates and times
• Voice notes and original media files
• Related documents
• Information identifying relevant witnesses
• Any evidence showing the impact or circumstances of the alleged conduct

Avoid editing, cropping, deleting, or altering original material where possible.

What to Do If You Receive an Illegal WhatsApp Message

If you receive a threatening, defamatory, privacy-invading, or otherwise potentially unlawful WhatsApp message, avoid responding impulsively.

Instead:

1. Preserve the original communication.
2. Take screenshots showing the surrounding context.
3. Keep the sender’s number and relevant account information.
4. Save original photographs, videos, voice notes, or documents.
5. Avoid retaliating with threats or insults.
6. Do not publicly repost the material unless you have a lawful reason to do so.
7. Obtain legal advice if the communication may amount to a criminal offense.
8. Report serious threats, extortion, or other criminal conduct to the appropriate authority.

Responding with similar insults or threats can create a separate legal issue and may complicate the original complaint.

Defenses in WhatsApp Cybercrime Cases

A WhatsApp complaint does not automatically establish criminal liability. The prosecution must prove the elements of the specific offense relied upon.

Depending on the allegation, relevant defense issues may include:

• Whether the accused actually sent the message
• Whether the account or device was accessed by another person
• Whether the screenshot is complete and authentic
• Whether the communication has been taken out of context
• Whether the content satisfies the legal definition of the alleged offense
• Whether consent was given where consent is legally relevant
• Whether the evidence was obtained lawfully
• Whether the prosecution has established the required criminal elements
• Whether the communication has been accurately translated or interpreted

The appropriate defense depends on the exact message, surrounding conversation, digital evidence, and legal provision relied upon in the complaint.

If you are accused of a WhatsApp-related offense, our Cybercrime Lawyers can review the digital evidence, complaint, communications, and procedural position and advise on the appropriate defense.

Legal Assistance for WhatsApp and Digital Communication Disputes

WhatsApp-related matters can overlap with cybercrime, defamation, privacy, criminal law, employment disputes, commercial disputes, and electronic evidence.

Al Ramsy Advocates can assist with matters involving alleged online defamation, threats, privacy violations, disclosure of confidential information, digital evidence, and other cybercrime allegations.

Our Criminal Defense Lawyers can also advise clients facing police investigations, Public Prosecution proceedings, criminal charges, and court proceedings arising from digital communications.

Frequently Asked Questions About WhatsApp Laws in the UAE

Is WhatsApp legal in the UAE?

Yes. WhatsApp is widely used in the UAE. However, conduct carried out through WhatsApp remains subject to UAE criminal, privacy, evidence, and other applicable laws.

Can WhatsApp messages be used as evidence in UAE courts?

Yes. UAE law recognizes electronic evidence, and WhatsApp messages and other digital communications may be relevant evidence where they satisfy the applicable evidentiary requirements. Article 53 of the UAE Law of Evidence defines electronic evidence broadly.

Can I be punished for insulting someone on WhatsApp?

Potentially. Article 43 of Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021 criminalizes specified insults and defamatory conduct carried out through information networks or information technology means and provides for imprisonment and/or a fine between AED 250,000 and AED 500,000.

Is recording a WhatsApp call without permission legal in the UAE?

Unauthorized recording or disclosure of communications can fall within Article 44 of the Cybercrimes Law where the statutory conditions are met. The provision provides for imprisonment of at least six months and/or a fine between AED 150,000 and AED 500,000 for specified privacy violations.

Can forwarding a private WhatsApp screenshot be a crime?

It can be, depending on the content, circumstances, consent, and applicable law. Sharing private communications, photographs, personal information, or confidential material may raise privacy, defamation, or confidentiality issues.

What is the penalty for WhatsApp threats in the UAE?

Article 42 addresses cyberextortion and cyber threats. Depending on the circumstances, the penalty can include imprisonment of up to two years and/or a fine between AED 250,000 and AED 500,000, with more serious consequences for specified threats involving crimes or dishonorable acts.

Is there a three-month deadline to file a WhatsApp complaint?

Not for every WhatsApp-related offense. Under Article 11 of the Criminal Procedures Law, certain offenses requiring a complaint must generally be reported within three months of the victim becoming aware of the crime and its perpetrator, unless the law provides otherwise. Insult and slander are among the offenses listed in that provision.

Can a WhatsApp cybercrime conviction affect an expatriate?

A conviction can have immigration consequences, and judicial deportation may be ordered against a foreigner where the court issues a deportation judgment. The specific consequences depend on the offense, judgment, and applicable legislation.

Conclusion

WhatsApp communications in the UAE are subject to cybercrime, privacy, defamation, and evidence laws. While using WhatsApp is legal, messages involving insults, threats, defamation, unauthorized recording, privacy violations, or the disclosure of confidential information can lead to legal consequences depending on the circumstances.

At Al Ramsy Advocates, our lawyers assist individuals and businesses with WhatsApp-related complaints, cybercrime allegations, digital evidence, defamation matters, and other disputes involving electronic communications. If you are facing a complaint or investigation, obtaining legal advice early can help you understand the applicable law, preserve relevant evidence, and determine the appropriate legal response.

Breach of Trust Under UAE Penal Code Article 453

Breach of trust, commonly referred to as khiyanat al-amanah, concerns the misuse or misappropriation of property that was lawfully entrusted to another person.

Article 453 of Federal Decree-Law No. 31 of 2021, the UAE Crimes and Penalties Law, applies where a person embezzles, uses, or dissipates funds, written instruments, or other movable property in a way that harms the person entitled to that property, where it was handed over under a relationship of trust such as a deposit, lease, mortgage, loan for use, or agency. The provision also treats certain co-owners, agents, and persons receiving property for a specific purpose as falling within the agency concept for the article.

The key distinction is that the accused must have obtained lawful possession of the property before allegedly misusing or misappropriating it. This is one of the main differences between breach of trust and offences such as theft or fraud.

For individuals facing allegations, our criminal defense lawyers assess the circumstances surrounding the transfer of the property, the contractual relationship, the evidence of alleged misuse, and whether the facts establish the elements of a criminal offence.

The Legal Elements That Must Be Established

A breach of trust allegation generally depends on several connected facts rather than simply proving that money or property was not returned. Under Article 453 of the UAE Crimes and Penalties Law, the circumstances surrounding the transfer, possession, use, and alleged misappropriation of the property are important when determining whether the conduct falls within the criminal offence.

Lawful Entrustment of Property

The first issue is whether the accused lawfully received or possessed the property because it was entrusted to them. Article 453 applies to property delivered under specific relationships, including deposit, lease, mortgage, loan for use, or agency.

This means the accused must have obtained possession through a relationship that created an obligation to preserve, return, use, or manage the property in accordance with the agreed purpose. Evidence such as contracts, agency documents, receipts, handover records, correspondence, and financial records may help establish how and why the property was transferred.

Property Covered by Article 453

The subject matter must fall within the types of property addressed by Article 453. The provision refers to money, written instruments, and other movable property.

The nature of the property and the circumstances in which it was delivered therefore matter when assessing the allegation. A lawyer may review the relevant documents and transaction records to determine what was entrusted, who was entitled to it, and what obligations applied to the person receiving it.

Misappropriation, Use or Dissipation

The next issue concerns what happened after the property was entrusted. Article 453 addresses conduct involving the embezzlement, use, or dissipation of the entrusted property in a manner that causes harm to the person entitled to it.

The prosecution may therefore need to establish more than a failure to return money or property. The evidence must be examined to determine whether the accused actually exercised control over the property in a way that was inconsistent with the purpose for which it was entrusted.

Harm to the Person Entitled to the Property

Article 453 also refers to conduct that causes harm to the person entitled to the property. The alleged misuse or dissipation must therefore be considered in connection with its effect on the owner or other person legally entitled to the property.

Financial records, transaction histories, correspondence, and other evidence may be relevant when determining whether the alleged conduct resulted in the type of harm contemplated by the provision.

Evidence of Criminal Responsibility

Finally, the available evidence must be sufficient to establish the criminal elements of the offence. A disagreement over repayment, a failed business transaction, or a contractual dispute does not automatically establish criminal breach of trust.

The circumstances must be assessed as a whole, including the original agreement, the purpose of the entrustment, the authority given to the accused, subsequent transactions or actions, communications between the parties, and evidence concerning the alleged misuse of the property.

This distinction is particularly important in commercial disputes, where a disagreement over contractual obligations or payment may be presented as a criminal allegation even though the underlying facts may require a different legal assessment. Our breach of trust defense lawyers review the evidence and circumstances of the transaction to assess whether the requirements of Article 453 are established and identify the appropriate defense strategy.

Types of Property and Trust Relationships Covered by Article 453

Article 453 specifically refers to funds, written instruments, and other movable property. The provision identifies several situations through which property may have been entrusted:

• Deposit
• Lease
• Mortgage
• Loan for use
• Agency or proxy
• Property delivered for a specific purpose for the benefit of its owner or another person

For example, an employee may lawfully receive company funds or equipment for a particular business purpose. A dispute can become criminal in nature if the evidence establishes that entrusted property was subsequently misappropriated or used in a manner causing the required harm.

The existence of a contract or business relationship does not automatically make every contractual breach a breach of trust. The circumstances surrounding possession and the alleged misuse must be examined.

Breach of Trust vs Theft and Fraud

The manner in which the accused obtained possession is an important legal distinction.

The difference between these offences can affect how the allegation is investigated, defended, and ultimately classified. Legal commentary on UAE cases specifically distinguishes breach of trust from theft based on lawful possession and from fraud based on the method by which the property was obtained.

Breach of Trust Punishment Under Article 453

Article 453 provides for incarceration or a fine for the offence. Importantly, the article itself does not specify a fixed maximum imprisonment period or a fixed fine. The applicable penalty therefore has to be determined by reading Article 453 together with the general provisions of the Crimes and Penalties Law and the facts established in the individual case.

This is why stating a single fixed penalty for every breach of trust case can be misleading. The applicable punishment depends on the offence established by the court and the relevant provisions governing the penalty.

Criminal Liability and Civil Disputes Are Not the Same

A failed payment, unpaid debt, business disagreement, or contractual breach does not automatically establish criminal breach of trust.

The critical issue is whether the evidence demonstrates the elements required by Article 453. Recent UAE legal analysis emphasizes the importance of distinguishing a genuine criminal allegation from a commercial or contractual dispute, particularly where the underlying disagreement concerns business performance, partnership arrangements, or repayment obligations.

For this reason, the underlying agreement, payment records, correspondence, accounting records, authority documents, and evidence concerning possession can all become important when assessing the case.

Evidence Commonly Examined in Breach of Trust Cases

Evidence can establish both how property was entrusted and what happened afterward.

Relevant documents and records may include:

• Agency or power of attorney documents
• Employment or commercial agreements
• Deposit or custody records
• Bank statements and transaction records
• Invoices and receipts
• Accounting records
• Company correspondence
• WhatsApp messages and emails
• Delivery or handover documents
• Property or asset records
• Witness statements
• Digital records relevant to the alleged transaction

Our breach of trust defense lawyers can assess whether the evidence supports the alleged entrustment, the alleged misuse, and the required criminal elements.

Common Breach of Trust Cases in Dubai and the UAE

Breach of trust allegations can arise in different personal and commercial relationships, particularly where one person receives money, documents, or movable property for a specific purpose and is later accused of misusing or misappropriating it. Common situations include:

Employee Misuse of Company Property

An employee may face allegations after receiving company money, equipment, documents, or other property for work-related purposes and allegedly using it outside the authorized purpose. These cases may involve disputed transactions, company funds, business assets, confidential documents, or property provided to the employee for a specific task.

Agent or Representative Misconduct

A person acting under an agency or authorization arrangement may face allegations concerning funds or property received on behalf of another person. The circumstances of the authorization, the purpose for which the property was received, and whether the person acted within the scope of their authority can be important in assessing the allegation.

Partnership and Business Disputes

Disputes between partners may involve allegations that one party improperly used, transferred, or diverted jointly held or entrusted assets. Because these matters can also involve contractual and commercial issues, the underlying partnership agreement, financial records, transaction history, and authority of each partner should be carefully examined.

Property and Asset Disputes

A person entrusted with movable property for safekeeping, use, or a specific purpose may face criminal allegations if the owner claims that the property was misappropriated or improperly used. Evidence concerning the original handover, agreed purpose, possession of the asset, subsequent use, and any attempts to return it may be relevant to determining whether the conduct falls within Article 453.

Criminal Procedure and Legal Representation

A breach of trust allegation can progress through several stages, depending on the circumstances and the authority handling the matter.

Early legal advice can be particularly important where a person has been summoned for questioning, asked to attend a police station, or notified that a criminal complaint has been filed.

Our criminal lawyers in Dubai can assist with police and Public Prosecution proceedings, case assessment, evidence review, defense preparation, and court representation.

Defenses in Breach of Trust Cases

The appropriate defense depends on the evidence and the circumstances of the alleged transaction. Potential issues may include:

• The property was never entrusted to the accused in the manner alleged.
• The accused did not have the required control or possession.
• The transaction represents a contractual or commercial disagreement rather than a criminal offence.
• The property was used with valid authorization.
• The evidence does not establish misappropriation, use, or dissipation.
• The alleged conduct did not cause the required harm.
• The prosecution evidence does not establish the necessary criminal elements.
• Documents, communications, or transaction records contradict the allegation.

A defense should be based on the actual evidence and legal elements of the offence rather than simply on the existence of a dispute between the parties.

Breach of Trust Cases Involving Employees and Businesses

Businesses may encounter breach of trust allegations involving employees, managers, agents, partners, or other individuals who have access to company property.

At the same time, employers should distinguish between an employee’s poor performance, unpaid amounts, contractual disagreement, or accounting discrepancy and conduct that actually satisfies the requirements of Article 453.

A careful review of employment records, authorization limits, financial transactions, internal policies, correspondence, and company records can help establish what property was entrusted, for what purpose, and what authority the individual had.

Legal Support for Breach of Trust Allegations in Dubai

Our legal team assists individuals and businesses involved in breach of trust investigations and proceedings by:

• Reviewing the criminal complaint and supporting evidence
• Assessing whether Article 453 applies to the facts
• Reviewing contracts, agency documents, and financial records
• Preparing responses to allegations
• Representing clients before the police and Public Prosecution
• Preparing criminal defense submissions
• Representing clients before the UAE courts
• Advising on related civil compensation claims
• Assessing available procedural and legal remedies

Where a case involves digital transactions, electronic communications, or online financial activity, our cybercrime lawyers can also assess the technology-related evidence and applicable cybercrime legislation.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is considered breach of trust in Dubai?

Breach of trust under Article 453 involves the embezzlement, use, or dissipation of money, written instruments, or other movable property that was entrusted to the accused through a relationship such as a deposit, lease, mortgage, loan for use, or agency, where the conduct causes harm to the person entitled to the property.

What is the punishment for breach of trust in the UAE?

Article 453 provides for incarceration or a fine. The article itself does not state a single fixed imprisonment period or fine, so the applicable penalty must be determined under the wider Crimes and Penalties Law and according to the facts established in the case.

Is breach of trust a criminal or civil matter in the UAE?

Breach of trust under Article 453 is a criminal offence. However, some disputes involving unpaid money, contracts, partnerships, or business obligations may remain civil or commercial disputes if the evidence does not establish the elements of the criminal offence.

Can a contractual dispute become a breach of trust case?

A contractual or commercial dispute can involve a breach of trust allegation where the facts establish that property was lawfully entrusted and subsequently misappropriated, used, or dissipated in circumstances covered by Article 453. A mere failure to perform a contract does not automatically establish criminal liability.

Can a breach of trust case affect an expatriate’s status in the UAE?

A criminal conviction can have consequences for an expatriate beyond the underlying financial dispute, depending on the offence, judgment, and applicable UAE immigration and criminal laws. The specific consequences should therefore be assessed based on the individual case rather than assumed from the filing of a complaint alone.

Does returning the money automatically end a breach of trust case?

Returning money or property does not necessarily mean that a criminal case automatically ends. The effect of repayment depends on the applicable law, the circumstances of the case, and the procedural status of the proceedings.

Can a breach of trust allegation be challenged in court?

Yes. A defendant can challenge the prosecution’s case and evidence through the available criminal procedure. The defense may examine whether the property was actually entrusted, whether the alleged conduct falls within Article 453, and whether the evidence establishes the required elements of the offence.

Conclusion

Breach of trust cases in Dubai require careful assessment of how the property was entrusted, the purpose for which it was received, and the conduct that followed. Under Article 453 of the UAE Crimes and Penalties Law, not every contractual or financial disagreement amounts to a criminal breach of trust, making the evidence and circumstances of each case particularly important.

Where an allegation develops into criminal proceedings, experienced legal representation can help protect your rights through the investigation, prosecution, and court process. Where the dispute involves an agency relationship or power of attorney, reviewing the scope of the authority granted and how it was exercised may also be essential. If the matter proceeds to a court dispute, litigation lawyers can provide representation and assist with the appropriate legal proceedings and remedies.

UAE Alcohol Laws: What the Law Actually Allows

Under Article 363 of Federal Decree-Law No. 31 of 2021, drinking, possessing, and trading alcohol are not subject to penalty when carried out in cases and places authorized under the applicable legislation. The law also allows each emirate to regulate the use, circulation, possession, and trade of alcoholic beverages within its jurisdiction.

This means that alcohol is not prohibited outright in the UAE. Instead, its lawful consumption and purchase depend on factors such as age, location, licensing requirements, and the circumstances in which alcohol is consumed.

Unlicensed alcohol-related activities can carry significant penalties, particularly where alcohol is sold, promoted, manufactured, imported, or provided outside authorized circumstances.

The Legal Drinking Age in Dubai

The legal drinking age for alcohol in Dubai is 21.

Dubai’s official tourism guidance states that adults aged 21 and over can drink alcohol in licensed hotels, establishments, and restaurants. Federal law also provides specific protection for people under 21 by prohibiting offering or selling alcohol to them, inducing them to drink, or purchasing alcohol for them, subject to the statutory age-verification rules.

This age requirement applies to both residents and visitors.

Licensed Venues and Other Permitted Places for Alcohol Consumption

The location where alcohol is consumed is one of the most important factors under Dubai’s alcohol rules.

Alcohol can generally be consumed legally in licensed hotels, bars, restaurants, and other authorized establishments by people aged 21 and over.

Licensed venues may include:

• Hotels with licensed bars or restaurants
• Licensed restaurants
• Bars and lounges
• Other establishments authorized to serve alcohol

Drinking in a licensed venue does not mean that all conduct is permitted. Public disorder, aggressive behavior, and other offenses can still result in police action or criminal liability.

Alcohol Consumption in Hotels and Resorts

Hotels are among the most common places where visitors legally consume alcohol in Dubai.

A hotel may serve alcohol through licensed restaurants, bars, lounges, or other authorized areas. However, the fact that a property is a hotel does not mean that alcohol can automatically be consumed anywhere on the premises.

Guests should follow the hotel’s rules and remain within areas where alcohol consumption is permitted.

Drinking Alcohol at Home and in Private Residences

Private consumption is treated differently from drinking in a public place, but it does not mean that every alcohol-related activity inside a private residence is automatically lawful.

Article 363 distinguishes between authorized alcohol-related conduct and activities carried out without the required authorization. For residents and visitors purchasing alcohol for private consumption, current Dubai licensing information also provides a personal licensing system for eligible individuals aged 21 and over.

The safest approach is to purchase alcohol through authorized channels and consume it only in circumstances permitted by the applicable rules.

Alcohol Licensing in Dubai

Dubai has a personal alcohol licensing system for eligible residents and tourists.

Current licensing information published by African + Eastern states that:

• Residents aged 21 and over can apply using a valid Emirates ID.
• Tourists aged 21 and over can apply using a valid passport.
• The personal alcohol licence is currently free.
• Tourist licences are generally issued for a shorter period than resident licences.

The licence is relevant to retail purchases and private consumption. It should not be confused with a venue’s separate authorization to serve alcohol.

The 30% Alcohol Fee in Dubai

The Dubai alcohol market has undergone several changes in recent years, particularly regarding the municipality fee.

The 30% alcohol sales fee was suspended beginning in 2023 but was reinstated from 1 January 2025. This fee is separate from the current personal alcohol license, which is described as free in Dubai’s current licensing information.

Therefore, older articles stating that Dubai permanently removed its 30% alcohol tax or fee may no longer reflect the current position.

Public Drinking and Intoxication

Dubai distinguishes between consuming alcohol in an authorized setting and drinking in public.

Drinking alcohol in a public place or an unauthorized location can constitute an offense under Article 363 of the UAE Crimes and Penalties Law.

The law also addresses being intoxicated in a public place where the person’s conduct causes a disturbance, nuisance, or disruption.

Examples of places where visitors should not assume that alcohol consumption is permitted include:

• Public streets
• Public parks
• Public beaches
• Other areas that are not authorized for alcohol consumption

The fact that alcohol is legally purchased does not make it legal to consume it anywhere.

Alcohol-Related Offenses and Potential Penalties

Article 363 of Federal Decree-Law No. 31 of 2021 provides different penalties depending on the conduct involved.

Additional consequences can apply depending on the circumstances, including confiscation or closure measures and, in applicable cases involving non-citizens, deportation.

Because the precise penalty depends on the conduct and applicable legislation, an allegation should be assessed based on the facts of the individual case.

Drink Driving Is a Separate and Serious Offense

Alcohol consumption and driving are treated separately under UAE traffic legislation.

Dubai follows a strict approach to drink driving: driving or attempting to drive while under the influence of alcohol is an offense under the current UAE Traffic Regulation Law.

Federal Decree-Law No. 14 of 2024 on Traffic Regulation provides for imprisonment and/or a fine between AED 20,000 and AED 100,000 for driving or attempting to drive on a road while under the influence of alcoholic beverages.

The law also provides for suspension of the driver’s licence:

• At least 3 months for a first offense
• At least 6 months for a second offense
• Cancellation of the licence for a third offense

The current provision does not establish a permitted BAC figure in the wording of the offense. Instead, it criminalizes driving or attempting to drive while under the influence.

Alcohol-Related Road Accidents and Criminal Liability

The consequences can become more serious when alcohol is connected to a traffic accident.

Where a person causes a death through the use of a vehicle and the circumstances specified under the Traffic Regulation Law apply, including driving under the influence, the law provides for enhanced penalties.

This is why consuming alcohol and subsequently driving should not be treated as an ordinary traffic violation. Depending on the circumstances, a case may involve criminal proceedings in addition to traffic penalties.

If you are facing an investigation, arrest, prosecution, or license-related consequences following an alleged DUI offense, speaking with DUI Lawyers can help you understand the applicable procedure and your legal options.

Alcohol Laws for Tourists Visiting Dubai

Tourists are subject to Dubai’s alcohol laws in the same way as other people within the jurisdiction.

Visitors aged 21 and over may consume alcohol in licensed establishments, including licensed hotels, restaurants, bars, and lounges.

Tourists should also understand the distinction between:

• Drinking alcohol in a licensed establishment
• Purchasing alcohol for private consumption
• Drinking in public
• Being intoxicated and causing a disturbance
• Driving after consuming alcohol

Being a tourist does not create an exemption from UAE criminal or traffic laws.

Common Mistakes That Can Lead to Legal Problems

Many alcohol-related problems arise from assuming that because alcohol is legally sold in Dubai, it can be consumed or handled anywhere.

Common mistakes include:

• Drinking alcohol in an unauthorized public location
• Becoming intoxicated and causing a disturbance
• Providing alcohol to someone under 21
• Purchasing alcohol outside authorized channels
• Driving after drinking
• Assuming that being inside a hotel automatically makes every area an authorized drinking location
• Relying on outdated information about Dubai’s alcohol licensing or municipality fees

Understanding the distinction between legal purchase, legal possession, legal consumption, and lawful conduct after drinking is important.

Legal Assistance for Alcohol-Related Offenses in Dubai

Alcohol-related cases can involve different areas of UAE law depending on what allegedly occurred.

For example, a case involving driving under the influence may fall under traffic and criminal legislation, while allegations involving public disorder, unlawful conduct, or another offense may require a broader criminal defense assessment.

If you are under investigation or facing charges, Criminal Defense Lawyers can assess the allegations, applicable legislation, procedural position, and available legal options.

Conclusion

Alcohol is legal in Dubai, but its use is subject to specific age, location, licensing, and conduct requirements. Adults aged 21 and over can drink in licensed establishments and other authorized circumstances, while public drinking, certain forms of public intoxication, and driving under the influence can lead to serious legal consequences.

Dubai’s alcohol regulations have also changed over time, making it important to rely on current legislation rather than older travel guides or outdated information about licensing and alcohol fees. If you are facing an alcohol-related investigation, DUI charge, or other criminal allegation in Dubai, obtaining legal advice based on the specific circumstances of your case can help you understand the applicable law and available legal options.

Frequently Asked Questions About Alcohol in Dubai

Is alcohol legal in Dubai?

Alcohol is legal in Dubai for people aged 21 and over when consumed in licensed establishments or other circumstances authorized by applicable UAE and Dubai regulations.

Can tourists drink alcohol in Dubai?

Tourists aged 21 and over can drink alcohol in licensed establishments in Dubai. Tourists must still comply with Dubai’s rules on public drinking, intoxication, purchasing alcohol, and driving.

Can you drink alcohol in a Dubai hotel?

Licensed hotels can serve alcohol to customers aged 21 and over, but consumption should take place in areas authorized for alcohol service.

Can you drink alcohol at home in Dubai?

Private consumption may be permitted when the applicable licensing and authorization requirements are satisfied. Residents and eligible tourists can obtain a personal alcohol licence through Dubai’s current licensing system.

What is the legal drinking age in Dubai?

The legal drinking age is 21.

Is drinking alcohol in public legal in Dubai?

Article 363 prohibits drinking in a public place or unauthorized location, and it also addresses being intoxicated in public where the conduct causes a disturbance, nuisance, or disruption.

Is drink driving legal in Dubai?

Driving or attempting to drive while under the influence of alcohol is an offense under the UAE Traffic Regulation Law.

What is the penalty for drink driving in Dubai?

Under Federal Decree-Law No. 14 of 2024, driving or attempting to drive while under the influence of alcohol can result in imprisonment and/or a fine between AED 20,000 and AED 100,000, along with driver’s licence consequences.

Is the Dubai alcohol licence free?

Current Dubai alcohol licensing information states that the personal alcohol licence is free for eligible residents and tourists aged 21 and over.

Was the 30% alcohol tax removed in Dubai?

The 30% Dubai alcohol sales fee was suspended beginning in 2023 but was reinstated from 1 January 2025. It is separate from the personal alcohol licence.

Can you drink on a Dubai beach?

Alcohol should not be consumed on a public beach unless the specific location is authorized for alcohol consumption. Public drinking rules continue to apply even when alcohol was legally purchased.

What should I do if I am arrested for an alcohol-related offense in Dubai?

If you are arrested or investigated, avoid making assumptions about the legal consequences based on general information online. Obtain legal advice promptly so the specific allegations, evidence, and applicable UAE legislation can be reviewed.

A DLD/RERA complaint can be appropriate for broker misconduct, misleading advertisements or other regulatory violations. However, refunds, compensation, contract cancellation and rental disputes follow different legal routes.

Al Ramsy Advocates provides real estate legal services in the UAE for buyers, sellers and investors dealing with property transactions and disputes.

What Law Regulates Real Estate Agents in Dubai?

Real estate brokers in Dubai are principally regulated by Bylaw No. 85 of 2006 Regulating the Real Estate Brokers Register in the Emirate of Dubai.

The Bylaw regulates matters including:

• broker registration;
• professional conduct;
• disclosure obligations;
• handling of client money;
• brokerage agreements;
• commission; and
• disciplinary measures.

The current regulatory powers of RERA are set out in Law No. 4 of 2019 Concerning the Real Estate Regulatory Agency.

Under Article 5, RERA has authority to:

• regulate and license real estate activities;
• register persons carrying out those activities;
• monitor compliance with Dubai real estate legislation;
• supervise real estate advertisements; and
• consider and investigate complaints against persons carrying out regulated real estate activities.

A complaint should therefore focus on a specific regulatory breach, rather than simply dissatisfaction with the outcome of a transaction.

What Real Estate Agent Complaints Can DLD and RERA Handle?

DLD’s Real Estate Violation System deals with regulatory violations involving licensed real estate companies and professionals.

Examples may include:

• misleading or inaccurate property advertisements;
• unlicensed or non-compliant advertising;
• broker misconduct;
• breaches of applicable RERA or DLD requirements;
• negative brokerage practices;
• improper handling of transaction information; and
• other regulatory violations by a licensed real estate company or broker.

DLD also provides a separate channel for reporting unwanted marketing or cold calls from real estate companies and brokers.

What Complaints Are Not Handled Through the DLD Violation System?

This is one of the most important distinctions.

DLD states that the Real Estate Violation System does not decide:

• refund claims;
• compensation claims;
• requests to cancel reservations or contracts;
• contractual disputes; or
• landlord–tenant disputes.

Rental disputes are generally handled by the Rental Disputes Center (RDC).

DLD also states that disputes or complaints involving contracts concluded more than six months earlier are not considered through this complaint service.

The correct route therefore depends on what happened and, more importantly, what remedy you want.

How to File a Real Estate Agent Complaint in Dubai

A qualifying complaint can be filed through:

• the Dubai Land Department website; or
• the Dubai REST application.

The process is relatively straightforward.

1. Identify the Brokerage Company

Confirm the correct:

• company name;
• licence details;
• broker information; and
• transaction or property details.

Selecting the wrong company or complaint category can result in the complaint being closed.

2. Choose the Correct Complaint Type

DLD separates regulatory broker complaints from issues such as:

• rental disputes;
• refunds;
• compensation;
• contractual disagreements; and
• maintenance or building-management matters.

Choose the category that reflects the actual problem.

3. Describe the Violation Clearly

Explain:

• what happened;
• who was involved;
• when it happened;
• what the broker or company did; and
• what evidence supports the complaint.

Keep the explanation factual and chronological.

4. Attach Supporting Documents

Evidence is required to support the alleged violation.

5. Submit and Track the Complaint

Once submitted, the complaint can be referred to the relevant real estate company for a response.

DLD currently states an expected response period of five business days, although cases involving legal obstacles may take longer.

What Evidence Should You Include?

The strongest complaint is usually the one supported by clear documents.

Depending on the issue, useful evidence may include:

• property advertisement screenshots;
• brokerage agreement;
• Form A, B or F where relevant;
• Sale and Purchase Agreement;
• reservation documents;
• payment receipts;
• bank-transfer records;
• emails;
• WhatsApp messages;
• listing details;
• broker or company information;
• photographs; and
• any document showing the alleged violation.

If the complaint concerns an advertisement, save a copy before the listing is changed or removed.

If it concerns money paid through the broker, preserve the complete payment trail.

Under Article 21 of Bylaw No. 85 of 2006, money, securities or other items delivered to a broker for safekeeping or transfer are subject to trustee obligations.

Can You Complain About a Misleading Property Advertisement?

Yes.

RERA has regulatory authority over real estate advertising in Dubai, and DLD’s complaint system specifically accepts complaints concerning misleading or violating real estate advertisements.

Potential issues may include:

• inaccurate property information;
• advertising without the required regulatory approval;
• incorrect project or unit details;
• misleading claims about the property; or
• advertising practices that breach DLD or RERA requirements.

The complaint should identify exactly what information was misleading and include evidence showing what was advertised.

A regulatory complaint does not automatically create a right to compensation. A separate legal claim may be needed if the misleading conduct also caused financial loss.

What if the Broker Is Not Properly Licensed?

Dubai brokerage activity is regulated.

Article 3 of Bylaw No. 85 of 2006 prohibits a person from carrying out real estate brokerage activity unless the applicable licensing and registration requirements are satisfied.

Before entering a transaction, buyers and sellers should check the broker and brokerage company’s regulatory status.

If an individual appears to be acting as a broker without the required registration, that issue can be raised through the appropriate DLD/RERA regulatory channel.

What if You Want a Refund or Compensation?

A DLD regulatory complaint is not the same as a financial claim.

If your main objective is to recover:

• a deposit;
• brokerage fees;
• another payment;
• damages;
• compensation; or
• money following cancellation of a transaction,

the contract and legal basis of the claim need to be reviewed separately.

DLD expressly states that its Real Estate Violation System does not decide refund, compensation or contractual claims.

Where the dispute concerns the SPA, deposit entitlement or another property transaction, real estate dispute lawyers in the UAE can review the agreement and determine the appropriate dispute route.

What if the Dispute Is About the Agent’s Commission?

Broker commission depends primarily on the brokerage agreement and the transaction.

Under Article 26 of Bylaw No. 85 of 2006, a brokerage agreement must be in writing and identify the relevant parties, property and brokerage terms.

Article 27 provides that brokerage remuneration is determined by agreement. Where the amount is not agreed, prevailing practice may become relevant.

The broker’s entitlement can also depend on whether the transaction was successfully concluded and on the terms of the brokerage agreement.

A commission dispute therefore should not be treated simply as a complaint that the commission is “too high”.

The questions are usually:

• What does the brokerage agreement say?
• Who appointed the broker?
• What service was performed?
• Was the transaction completed?
• Was the broker acting consistently with the client’s interests?
• Has the commission already become legally due?

If the dispute is financial or contractual rather than regulatory, the RERA complaint process may not be the correct route.

What if the Complaint Is Related to a Rental Property?

First determine whether the real problem is the broker’s conduct or the tenancy relationship.

If the issue is:

• rent;
• eviction;
• lease renewal;
• maintenance;
• security deposit; or
• another landlord–tenant obligation,

the appropriate forum is generally the Rental Disputes Center rather than DLD’s Real Estate Violation System.

If there is a separate regulatory violation by the brokerage company, that issue may be considered independently.

The two matters should not be combined simply because the same real estate agent was involved.

What if the Complaint Involves an Off-Plan Property?

An off-plan transaction can involve both a broker and a developer.

A broker complaint may be appropriate where the issue concerns the broker’s advertising, representations or regulatory conduct.

However, issues such as:

• delayed handover;
• Oqood registration;
• developer default;
• SPA termination;
• refund rights; or
• purchaser default notices

are broader off-plan legal issues.

Those matters should be reviewed under the off-plan property framework and the SPA rather than treated solely as complaints against the agent.

Al Ramsy’s off-plan property dispute lawyers in Dubai advise buyers and investors on off-plan contractual and registration disputes.

What Can Happen After a Complaint Against a Broker?

The outcome depends on whether DLD/RERA finds that a regulatory violation occurred.

Under Article 39 of Bylaw No. 85 of 2006, disciplinary measures can include:

• notice;
• warning;
• suspension of brokerage activity for up to six months; or
• blacklisting.

Article 40 also allows cancellation of a broker’s registration in specified serious circumstances, including gross violations of applicable rules or professional ethics.

A complaint does not automatically result in a penalty.

The regulator first considers the complaint, evidence and response from the relevant real estate company or broker.

Which Complaint Route Should You Use?

Use the remedy you need to identify the correct route.

Before filing, organise the evidence and make sure the authority you choose can actually provide the remedy you are seeking.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do I make a complaint against a real estate agent in Dubai?

A qualifying regulatory complaint can be submitted through the Dubai Land Department website or Dubai REST application using the Real Estate Violation complaint service.

Can RERA help me get a refund from a broker?

The DLD Real Estate Violation System does not decide refund, compensation or other contractual financial claims. A separate legal or contractual route may be required.

What documents should I submit with a broker complaint?

Supporting evidence may include advertisements, brokerage agreements, transaction documents, payment receipts, emails, messages and other documents showing the alleged violation.

How long does a real estate agent complaint take in Dubai?

DLD currently lists an expected service time of five business days for its Real Estate Violation complaint service, although matters involving legal obstacles may take longer.

For buyers and investors, the key rule is simple: verify the legal status of the property, seller, developer and transaction before paying or signing, and make sure the required property rights are properly registered with DLD.

Al Ramsy Advocates provides real estate legal services in the UAE for buyers, sellers, developers and investors dealing with property transactions and disputes.

What Are the Main Dubai Real Estate Laws?

Dubai does not have one law covering every property issue.

The main legislation depends on the transaction:

Property contracts and civil rights are also affected by the current UAE Federal Decree-Law No. 25 of 2025 on Civil Transactions, which entered into force on 1 June 2026.

The correct law therefore depends on whether the issue concerns ownership, buying, financing, development, leasing or a dispute.

For a wider overview beyond Dubai, see our guide to UAE real estate law.

Can Foreigners Own Property in Dubai?

Yes, but foreign ownership depends on the location and legal classification of the property.

Article 4 of Law No. 7 of 2006 establishes the main ownership framework.

Non-UAE nationals may acquire property rights in areas designated for foreign ownership, including:

• freehold ownership;
• usufruct rights; and
• leasehold rights for periods of up to 99 years.

Regulation No. 3 of 2006 and its amendments identify areas where these rights may be available.

In practice, buyers should confirm whether the property is classified for the type of ownership they intend to acquire rather than relying only on marketing descriptions.

Before purchasing, check:

1. the property’s DLD registration status;
2. whether the area permits the buyer’s intended form of ownership; and
3. what legal right will appear on the title documentation.

Why Must Property Transactions Be Registered With DLD?

Registration is one of the most important requirements under Dubai property law.

Article 9 of Law No. 7 of 2006, as amended, requires transactions that create, transfer, change or extinguish real property rights to be registered in the Real Property Register.

A signed agreement or payment alone should therefore not be confused with completion of the legal transfer.

For a completed property transaction, buyers should usually check:

• the seller’s ownership;
• title deed details;
• registered mortgages or restrictions;
• the Sale and Purchase Agreement;
• required approvals or NOCs; and
• completion of the DLD transfer process.

Proper due diligence before transfer can help identify ownership, contractual or registration problems before they become disputes.

What Laws Protect Off-Plan Property Buyers?

Off-plan property has a different registration and payment structure from completed property.

Two laws are particularly important.

Law No. 13 of 2008 — Interim Property Register

Off-plan transactions must be registered in the applicable Interim Property Register.

Dubai Land Department operates this provisional registration process through Oqood.

Registration creates an official record of the purchaser’s off-plan interest before final title registration is possible.

Buyers should confirm that the SPA and provisional registration details accurately reflect the unit being purchased.

Law No. 8 of 2007 — Escrow Accounts

Dubai also regulates purchaser payments through project escrow accounts.

Qualifying real estate development projects must have a dedicated escrow account into which purchaser payments are deposited in accordance with the regulatory framework.

Separate projects generally require separate accounts.

Before buying off-plan, check:

• developer registration;
• project registration;
• escrow account details;
• SPA terms;
• payment milestones;
• expected handover provisions; and
• Oqood registration.

An escrow account adds regulatory protection, but it does not remove every commercial or legal risk.

Where handover is delayed, registration is disputed or a developer issues a default or cancellation notice, off-plan property dispute lawyers in Dubai can assess the SPA, payment history and applicable DLD procedures.

What Rules Apply to Real Estate Brokers?

Dubai real estate brokers must comply with the applicable licensing and registration framework.

Bylaw No. 85 of 2006 Regulating the Real Property Brokers Register regulates brokerage activity in Dubai.

A person should not conduct regulated real estate brokerage activity without the required registration and licensing.

RERA also performs regulatory functions relating to persons carrying out real estate activities.

Before relying on a broker, buyers and sellers should check:

• whether the broker is properly licensed;
• whether the broker represents the buyer, seller or both;
• what commission has been agreed;
• what documents the broker is authorised to sign or submit; and
• whether material statements about the property are supported by official records.

A broker arranging a transaction does not replace legal due diligence on the property, developer or contract.

What Should Apartment Owners Know About Service Charges?

Owners of apartments and other units in jointly owned developments are subject to Law No. 6 of 2019 Concerning Ownership of Jointly Owned Real Property.

The law regulates matters including:

• common parts;
• management entities;
• owners committees;
• service charges;
• usage charges; and
• management of shared facilities.

Owners are generally responsible for their applicable share of annual service charges relating to the management, operation, maintenance and repair of common parts.

However, service charges are regulated and the management entity cannot simply impose any amount it chooses without following the applicable RERA approval process.

Before buying a unit in a jointly owned development, check:

• current service charges;
• outstanding charges affecting the unit;
• building management arrangements;
• common-area maintenance obligations; and
• any known major building issues.

These expenses can materially affect the actual cost of owning an investment property.

How Do Dubai Mortgage Rules Work?

Mortgages over Dubai property are principally regulated by Law No. 14 of 2008 Concerning Mortgage in the Emirate of Dubai.

A key rule appears in Article 7:

a mortgage does not take effect as a registered property right unless it is registered with DLD.

The mortgagee must also be a bank, finance company or other institution authorised to provide real estate financing in the UAE.

Where a buyer is using financing, the transaction therefore involves both:

• transfer or registration of the property right; and
• registration of the mortgage.

Buyers should check the registered position rather than assuming a property is free from finance because the seller has not mentioned a mortgage.

What About Dubai Rental Laws?

Rental property is governed by a separate tenancy framework.

The main legislation is Law No. 26 of 2007, as amended by Law No. 33 of 2008, together with additional rules covering rent increases and rental disputes.

These rules deal with issues such as:

• rent increases;
• lease renewal;
• maintenance;
• eviction;
• security deposits;
• Ejari; and
• disputes before the Rental Disputes Center.

Tenancy rules should therefore not be confused with laws governing ownership or property transfers.

For disputes involving rent, eviction, deposits or lease renewal, Al Ramsy’s rental dispute lawyers in Dubai advise landlords and tenants on the applicable Dubai tenancy process.

What Should You Check Before Buying Property in Dubai?

Most property problems are easier to address before money has been committed.

For a Completed Property

Check:

• Is the seller the registered owner?
• Does the title match the property being sold?
• Is there a registered mortgage or restriction?
• Can you legally acquire the intended ownership right?
• Are there outstanding service charges?
• Does the SPA accurately reflect the transaction?
• Are any approvals or NOCs required before transfer?

For an Off-Plan Property

Also check:

• developer registration;
• project registration;
• escrow account details;
• Oqood registration;
• payment milestones;
• expected completion and handover terms;
• delay provisions;
• purchaser default provisions; and
• termination or refund clauses.

Marketing material should not replace review of the SPA and official property records.

Where ownership, deposits, SPA obligations or another property right becomes disputed, property dispute lawyers in the UAE can review the transaction and the appropriate dispute route.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the main real estate law in Dubai?

Law No. 7 of 2006 Concerning Real Property Registration is one of the principal Dubai property laws. Separate laws regulate off-plan property, escrow accounts, mortgages, brokers, jointly owned developments and tenancy.

Can foreigners buy freehold property in Dubai?

Yes. Non-UAE nationals can acquire freehold property in areas designated for foreign ownership, subject to the applicable Dubai registration rules.

Is DLD registration required when buying property in Dubai?

Yes. Transactions that create or transfer real property rights must be registered in accordance with Dubai property registration law. Off-plan purchases use the applicable provisional registration process before final title registration.

What should I check before buying an off-plan property?

Check the developer and project registration, escrow account, SPA terms, payment schedule, handover provisions and Oqood registration before committing substantial funds.

In practical terms, landlords cannot increase rent or evict tenants simply by giving informal notice. Dubai law sets rules for rent changes, maintenance, security deposits, lease renewal and eviction, with different notice requirements depending on the issue.

For broader property matters, Al Ramsy Advocates provides real estate legal services in the UAE for landlords, tenants, investors and businesses.

What Are the Main Rules Under Dubai Rental Law?

The rules that affect most landlords and tenants can be summarised as follows:

The applicable result can still depend on the tenancy contract, the type of property and the facts of the dispute.

Can a Landlord Increase Rent in Dubai?

A landlord cannot choose an arbitrary rent increase at renewal.

Under Decree No. 43 of 2013, the maximum increase depends on how the existing rent compares with the average rental value used by the Dubai Land Department Rental Index.

The Dubai Land Department now provides its Rental Index through its online services and the Dubai REST application.

Is 90 Days’ Notice Required for a Rent Increase?

Generally, yes.

Article 14 of Law No. 26 of 2007, as amended by Law No. 33 of 2008, provides that where either party wants to amend the terms of the tenancy on renewal, notice must be given at least 90 days before the contract expires, unless the parties have agreed otherwise.

This applies to proposed changes such as an increase in rent.

The landlord therefore needs to consider both:

1. whether the proposed increase is permitted under the applicable Rental Index; and
2. whether the required notice was given in time.

A dispute can arise even where the Rental Index permits an increase if the contractual or statutory notice requirements were not followed.

What Are the Landlord’s and Tenant’s Responsibilities?

Dubai tenancy law places obligations on both sides.

Landlord Responsibilities

Under Articles 15 and 16, the landlord must generally deliver the property in a condition that allows the tenant to use it as agreed.

Unless the parties agree otherwise, the landlord is also responsible during the tenancy for maintenance and repairs necessary to address defects that affect the tenant’s intended use of the property.

Article 34 also prohibits a landlord from disconnecting services or otherwise interfering with the tenant’s use of the property.

Tenant Responsibilities

The tenant must:

• pay rent when due;
• take reasonable care of the property;
• comply with the tenancy agreement;
• avoid unauthorised alterations;
• use the property for its agreed purpose; and
• obtain the landlord’s written consent before subletting unless the agreement provides otherwise.

Under Article 19, the tenant can also be responsible for maintenance or restoration expressly agreed in the contract or customarily carried out by tenants.

For offices, shops, warehouses and other business premises, lease terms can allocate significant additional obligations. Businesses can review these terms with commercial lease lawyers in Dubai.

What Happens to the Security Deposit?

Article 20 of Law No. 26 of 2007 allows a landlord to take a security deposit to secure the maintenance of the property at the end of the tenancy.

The landlord must return the deposit, or the remaining balance, when the tenancy ends.

This does not mean every deduction is automatically valid.

A dispute may arise over whether a claimed deduction relates to:

• actual tenant-caused damage;
• agreed maintenance;
• unpaid obligations; or
• ordinary wear and tear.

Article 21 separately recognises that a tenant is not required to return the property free from ordinary wear and tear.

For that reason, both parties should document the property’s condition at the beginning and end of the tenancy.

Useful evidence can include:

• dated photographs;
• move-in and move-out inspection reports;
• maintenance records;
• invoices;
• repair quotations; and
• written correspondence concerning damage.

When Can a Tenant Be Evicted in Dubai?

Eviction rules depend on whether the landlord is seeking eviction during the tenancy or after the tenancy expires.

Eviction Before the Lease Expires

Article 25(1) allows eviction before expiry only on specified grounds.

These can include situations where:

• rent remains unpaid for 30 days after the required notice, unless otherwise agreed;
• the property is sublet without the landlord’s written approval;
• the tenant uses the property for an illegal or unauthorised purpose;
• the tenant causes serious property damage;
• the tenant breaches a legal or contractual obligation and fails to remedy it within the required period after notice; or
• another statutory ground under Article 25 applies.

The exact notice requirement depends on the eviction ground.

Eviction After the Lease Expires

Under Article 25(2), a landlord may seek possession after expiry where:

• the property will be demolished and reconstructed;
• comprehensive renovation or maintenance requires the property to be vacant;
• the owner needs the property for personal use or use by a first-degree relative, subject to the statutory requirements; or
• the owner intends to sell the property.

For these grounds, the tenant must receive at least 12 months’ notice stating the eviction reason, served through a Notary Public or registered mail.

The 90-day notice used for changing lease terms and the 12-month eviction notice are therefore not the same rule.

Tenants or landlords dealing with a disputed notice can obtain advice from eviction lawyers in Dubai.

Can a Landlord Re-Rent After Evicting a Tenant for Personal Use?

There are restrictions.

Under Article 26, where possession is recovered for the owner’s personal use or the use of a first-degree relative, the property generally cannot be rented to another party for at least:

• 2 years for residential property; or
• 3 years for non-residential property.

If this restriction is breached, the former tenant may seek fair compensation through the competent rental dispute forum.

Is Ejari Registration Mandatory?

Yes.

Article 4 of the Dubai tenancy framework requires lease contracts governed by the law, and amendments to them, to be registered with RERA.

Ejari is the Dubai Land Department system used to record tenancy contracts.

A properly registered Ejari provides an official record of important lease information such as:

• landlord and tenant details;
• property details;
• lease duration; and
• agreed rent.

Ejari documentation is also commonly required when filing a rental dispute.

A problem with Ejari does not necessarily mean that every legal issue between the parties disappears, but failure to maintain proper tenancy documentation can create practical problems when proving the lease position.

How Are Rental Disputes Resolved in Dubai?

Most qualifying landlord–tenant disputes in Dubai are handled by the Rental Disputes Center (RDC).

Decree No. 26 of 2013 gives the RDC jurisdiction over many rental disputes involving Dubai property, subject to statutory exceptions, including certain free zones that have their own specialist courts or tribunals.

Common RDC disputes include:

• rent increases;
• eviction;
• unpaid rent;
• lease renewal;
• maintenance;
• security deposits;
• termination; and
• other tenancy obligations.

Al Ramsy Advocates’ rental dispute lawyers in Dubai assist landlords and tenants with RDC claims, notices, rent disputes, deposits, renewal issues and related tenancy proceedings.

How Does an RDC Case Work?

A typical case may involve:

1. reviewing the tenancy contract and Ejari;
2. identifying the legal claim or defence;
3. collecting notices and supporting evidence;
4. attempting settlement where appropriate;
5. filing the claim through the RDC system or an authorised Real Estate Services Trustee;
6. attending the hearing through the RDC process; and
7. enforcing the judgment where necessary.

Documents submitted to the RDC must be in Arabic or legally translated into Arabic.

What Are the RDC Filing Fees?

Current RDC filing fees depend on the type of claim.

Additional notification, registration, knowledge, innovation or service-partner fees may apply.

Where an amicable settlement is reached through the applicable RDC process, the RDC currently states that part of the basic court fee may be refunded.

What Should You Do Before Starting a Rental Dispute?

Before filing a claim, organise the evidence and identify the exact issue.

Useful documents can include:

• current and previous tenancy contracts;
• Ejari certificate;
• rent payment records;
• cheques and bank transfers;
• rent increase or eviction notices;
• proof of service;
• emails and messages;
• security deposit receipt;
• photographs or condition reports;
• maintenance requests;
• repair invoices; and
• relevant expert or technical reports.

Then check what the dispute is actually about.

For example:

• a rent increase dispute should focus on the notice date and Rental Index result;
• an eviction dispute should focus on the legal ground and notice procedure;
• a security deposit dispute should focus on the property’s condition and documented deductions.

Preparing the right evidence before filing can make the RDC claim clearer and avoid unnecessary delay.

Frequently Asked Questions

How much can a landlord increase rent in Dubai?

The permitted increase depends on how far the current rent is below the average rental value under the applicable Dubai Land Department Rental Index. Decree No. 43 of 2013 provides maximum increases ranging from 0% to 20%.

Does a landlord need to give 90 days’ notice to increase rent?

Generally, yes. Article 14 requires at least 90 days’ notice before the tenancy expires where a party wants to amend the contract terms, unless the parties have agreed otherwise.

How much notice is required to evict a tenant in Dubai?

For eviction after expiry based on sale, personal use, demolition or qualifying major renovation, Article 25(2) requires at least 12 months’ notice stating the reason, served through a Notary Public or registered mail. Different rules apply to eviction during the tenancy for breach or non-payment.

Where do I file a rental dispute in Dubai?

Most qualifying landlord–tenant disputes are filed with the Rental Disputes Center in Dubai. The appropriate claim depends on whether the dispute concerns eviction, rent, renewal, a financial claim or another tenancy issue.

A foreign prenup should not automatically be assumed to produce the same result in a UAE court. Couples considering financial or marital arrangements can obtain advice from family lawyers in the UAE before signing.

Are Prenuptial Agreements Recognised in the UAE?

For civil marriages falling under Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022, Article 6 allows the spouses to agree on the terms of their marriage contract.

The contract can address rights during the marriage and rights following divorce.

These agreed terms can become particularly important if the marriage later ends.

Under Article 9, where the marriage contract does not already determine the conditions governing alimony or other financial claims after divorce, the court assesses those claims according to the statutory factors.

This means the civil framework gives couples meaningful scope to agree financial terms in advance.

However, an agreement should not be treated as automatically effective merely because both parties signed it.

Its legal effect can still depend on:

• whether the correct legal framework applies;
• the wording of the agreement;
• whether its terms are legally permitted;
• how it was incorporated or authenticated;
• whether another country’s law is relevant; and
• whether mandatory family-law rules apply.

What Can a UAE Prenuptial Agreement Cover?

A civil prenuptial agreement can be used to clarify financial arrangements that matter to the couple.

The agreement should reflect the couple’s actual finances rather than rely on broad terms such as “my property” or “your assets”.

Business Interests

A business owner may need to address:

• shares already owned before marriage;
• future companies;
• dividends;
• increases in company value;
• shareholder loans;
• business debt; and
• proceeds if the company is sold.

The agreement should also be considered alongside company documents such as shareholder agreements and transfer restrictions.

Real Estate

Property clauses may need to distinguish between:

• legal ownership;
• mortgage liability;
• financial contributions;
• renovation costs;
• sale proceeds; and
• occupation of the property after separation.

A marital agreement does not itself replace title registration or other property ownership formalities.

Where substantial UAE property is involved, the financial arrangements may also need to be coordinated with real estate lawyers in the UAE.

Can a Prenup Determine Spousal Financial Rights After Divorce?

Under the civil personal status framework, agreed financial terms can affect the position following divorce.

Article 9 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 gives the court discretion to assess alimony and other financial claims where the spouses have not already agreed the relevant terms in the marriage contract.

If there is no agreement, factors considered by the court can include:

• length of the marriage;
• the spouses’ financial positions;
• the wife’s age;
• financial or moral harm;
• the circumstances leading to divorce; and
• children and their care.

The Executive Regulations also recognise agreements between spouses concerning financial rights arising from a civil marriage.

For that reason, financial provisions should be drafted precisely rather than using broad clauses that attempt to waive every possible future right without explaining what the parties actually agreed.

Can a Prenup Decide Child Custody or Child Support?

A prenuptial agreement should not be treated as a way to permanently determine every future issue involving children.

Parents may record their intentions, but matters such as:

• custody;
• residence;
• visitation;
• schooling;
• healthcare;
• travel; and
• child support

remain subject to the applicable family law and the child’s interests.

A clause signed before children are born should therefore not be assumed to prevent a court from later making appropriate child-related orders.

The financial agreement between the spouses and the legal rights of their children are separate issues.

How Do Marriage Contract Conditions Work for Muslim Couples?

Muslim marriages use a different legal mechanism from the civil prenuptial framework.

Article 33 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024 regulates conditions included in the marriage contract.

The spouses are generally bound by lawful conditions, but the law places limits on what can be agreed.

A condition can be valid where it:

• does not contradict the essence of marriage;
• does not contradict the legal requirements of marriage; and
• is not prohibited by Islamic Sharia.

If a valid condition is breached, the spouse who stipulated it may have a right to request revocation of the marriage contract, subject to the requirements and time limits in Article 33.

The Article also makes documentation important.

A disputed condition generally needs to be:

• written in the marriage contract; or
• acknowledged by the spouses.

Where the condition is denied, the law requires it to appear in the authenticated marriage contract for it to be considered.

This means an informal promise made before marriage should not be treated as equivalent to a properly recorded marriage-contract condition.

Is Mahr the Same as a Prenuptial Agreement?

No.

Mahr is part of the separate Personal Status framework governing Muslim marriage.

It should not automatically be treated as an agreement determining every issue relating to:

• separately owned property;
• company shares;
• debts;
• future investments; or
• other financial arrangements.

Where a Muslim couple wants additional marriage conditions, those terms should be considered separately under Article 33.

Can a Prenuptial Agreement Be Authenticated in Abu Dhabi?

Yes.

The Abu Dhabi Civil Family Court provides a dedicated service for eligible couples who want to authenticate a civil prenuptial agreement.

The court provides a standard bilingual template, although parties may also prepare their own agreement subject to the applicable requirements.

The current procedure requires the agreement submitted for authentication to be available in Arabic and English.

A marriage agreement is optional rather than mandatory.

The Abu Dhabi court’s own template also recommends that parties consider independent legal advice and makes clear that the agreement should be adapted to their individual circumstances.

This Abu Dhabi procedure is a specific local civil family service and should not be confused with a universal authentication procedure applying identically to every marriage across the UAE.

How Can Couples Make a Prenuptial Agreement Stronger?

Good drafting matters as much as deciding to have an agreement.

Before signing, couples should consider the following:

• identify significant assets and liabilities;
• provide clear financial information;
• define property and business interests precisely;
• avoid generic foreign templates without UAE review;
• give both parties sufficient time to consider the agreement;
• consider independent legal advice;
• ensure both parties sign voluntarily;
• consider how future assets will be treated;
• avoid trying to permanently determine child-related matters; and
• consider whether another country may also need to recognise the agreement.

Financial disclosure and independent legal advice should be understood as sensible safeguards rather than described as universal statutory validity requirements for every UAE marital agreement.

The same applies to timing.

There is no general rule requiring every UAE prenup to be signed a fixed number of days before marriage, but allowing proper time for review can reduce later disputes about understanding or pressure.

What if the Couple Has Assets in More Than One Country?

Cross-border couples need to consider more than whether an agreement works in the UAE.

They may also need to ask:

• Where could a future divorce take place?
• Where are the main assets located?
• Will another country recognise the agreement?
• Does foreign property law affect any provision?
• Is another agreement required abroad?
• Do the parties have Wills that are consistent with the marital agreement?

For example, a couple may marry in the UAE but own property or businesses in several other countries.

The agreement should therefore be reviewed as part of the wider financial structure rather than in isolation.

A prenuptial agreement should also be coordinated with estate planning where appropriate. Couples with significant assets can review their succession arrangements through Will writing services in the UAE.

What Happens to a Prenuptial Agreement if the Couple Divorces?

The agreement becomes particularly relevant when financial claims are considered.

For a civil marriage, the court may first need to determine:

• whether the agreement applies;
• what its terms mean;
• whether the relevant provision is legally valid; and
• whether the agreement already regulates the financial issue being claimed.

Where no agreement governs the relevant financial claims, the statutory framework can apply.

An existing agreement should therefore be reviewed at the beginning of a divorce rather than after financial proceedings have already developed.

Anyone facing separation where a marital agreement exists can obtain advice from divorce lawyers in the UAE.

What Should You Check Before Signing?

Before signing a prenuptial or marital agreement, ask:

1. Which UAE marriage framework applies?
2. What assets and liabilities need to be addressed?
3. Are the financial terms clear?
4. Are business and property interests properly identified?
5. Does the agreement attempt to control matters that remain subject to family law?
6. Does the document need authentication?
7. Have both parties had enough time to review it?
8. Are other countries connected with the marriage or assets?
9. Does the agreement work consistently with existing Wills or estate plans?

A useful agreement should reduce uncertainty rather than create new questions about what the couple intended.

Frequently Asked Questions

Are prenuptial agreements legal in the UAE?

UAE law allows agreed marital terms within the applicable legal framework. Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 permits spouses in qualifying civil marriages to agree terms in their marriage contract, while Muslim marriage conditions are governed separately by Article 33 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024.

Can a prenup protect property owned before marriage?

A marital agreement can address how the spouses intend pre-marital property to be treated, subject to the applicable law and proper drafting. The agreement should also reflect the property’s actual registered ownership.

Can Muslim couples have a prenuptial agreement?

Muslim couples can include lawful conditions in their marriage contract under Article 33 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024. This is a different legal mechanism from the federal civil marriage framework.

Does a UAE prenup automatically apply in another country?

No. Recognition abroad depends on the law and procedures of the foreign jurisdiction. Couples with international assets or connections should consider cross-border recognition when the agreement is prepared.

The law also creates reporting duties for people responsible for children’s care and allows urgent protective intervention where a child faces serious danger. Families dealing with child safety alongside custody or guardianship concerns can obtain advice from child custody lawyers in the UAE.

What Does Wadeema’s Law Protect?

Wadeema’s Law is broader than a law dealing only with physical abuse.

It protects rights relating to a child’s:

• life and development;
• physical and psychological safety;
• healthcare;
• education;
• family care;
• privacy and dignity;
• protection from neglect;
• protection from physical and psychological abuse;
• protection from sexual exploitation; and
• protection from economic and other forms of exploitation.

Under the law, a child is a person under 18 years of age.

Article 33 identifies circumstances that can threaten a child’s safety and trigger protection. These include:

• abandonment or displacement;
• serious or repeated neglect;
• repeated abuse;
• sexual abuse or exploitation;
• failure by parents or custodians to protect or educate the child;
• economic exploitation or begging;
• criminal exploitation; and
• kidnapping, sale or human trafficking.

A child protection issue therefore does not require visible physical injury.

Neglect or a serious failure to protect the child can also fall within the law.

When Does Parental Conduct Become a Child Protection Issue?

Parents and custodians have legal responsibilities towards children in their care.

Article 35 prohibits conduct including:

• abandoning or neglecting a child;
• repeatedly leaving the child without supervision;
• failing to provide appropriate guidance or care;
• failing to manage the child’s essential affairs;
• failing to enrol the child in education; or
• allowing the child to remain outside compulsory education without a valid reason.

Article 36 separately prohibits torture, physical assault and conduct that compromises the child’s emotional, psychological, mental or moral safety.

This means parental authority does not permit abuse or serious neglect.

At the same time, an ordinary disagreement about parenting should not automatically be treated as child abuse. The facts, seriousness and effect on the child matter.

Who Must Report Child Abuse or Neglect?

Reporting is an important part of Wadeema’s Law.

Under Article 42, a person may notify a Child Protection Specialist or Child Protection Unit where a child’s safety or physical, psychological, moral or mental health is threatened.

The reporting duty becomes mandatory for people including:

• custodians;
• physicians;
• social workers; and
• persons entrusted with the protection, care or education of a child.

This means teachers, healthcare professionals and others responsible for children should not ignore a serious safeguarding concern simply because it arose within the family.

Article 43 also requires an adult to assist a child who asks for help reporting serious harm affecting the child, a sibling or another child.

Is the Reporter’s Identity Protected?

Yes.

Under Article 44, the reporter’s identity should not be disclosed without consent.

The law also restricts publication or disclosure of information that could identify children, parties or witnesses in child abuse cases.

This confidentiality protection helps allow concerns to be reported without unnecessarily exposing the child or reporter.

What Happens After a Child Protection Report?

A report does not automatically mean that the child will be removed from the family home.

Child Protection Specialists have statutory powers to assess the situation and determine the appropriate level of intervention.

Under Articles 40 and 41, their functions can include:

• preventive intervention where a child’s safety is threatened;
• intervention in cases of abuse, exploitation or neglect;
• collecting information and evidence;
• assessing the child’s circumstances;
• using social investigations; and
• applying appropriate protective measures.

Where the risk can be addressed safely, measures may focus on protecting the child while supporting the family.

Can a Child Be Removed From an Unsafe Place Immediately?

Yes, in serious cases.

Under Article 51, where a child faces significant harm or an imminent threat, a Child Protection Specialist may remove the child from the dangerous location and place the child somewhere safe before obtaining prior judicial approval.

The specialist must then obtain a court order to continue the protective measure within 24 hours, and the competent judge must decide on the request within the statutory 24-hour period.

This is an emergency measure intended for situations where waiting could expose the child to serious harm.

What Duties Do Schools and Healthcare Professionals Have?

Schools and healthcare professionals play an important role because they may identify abuse or neglect before anyone else outside the family.

Schools

Articles 31 and 32 recognise the child’s right to education and require measures aimed at:

• preventing school dropout;
• protecting children’s dignity;
• prohibiting violence in educational institutions; and
• providing mechanisms for reporting violations of educational rights.

The UAE’s National Child Protection Policy for Educational Institutions also requires schools to maintain safeguarding and confidential reporting procedures.

Education professionals can fall within the mandatory reporting duty under Article 42.

Healthcare Professionals

Physicians are expressly included among those subject to mandatory reporting under Article 42.

A safeguarding concern may arise from matters such as:

• unexplained injuries;
• repeated injuries;
• indications of neglect;
• signs of physical or sexual abuse;
• serious psychological concerns; or
• information disclosed by the child.

The professional does not need to determine criminal responsibility before reporting a genuine protection concern.

How Does Wadeema’s Law Protect Children From Sexual Exploitation?

Wadeema’s Law contains specific protections against sexual exploitation and prohibited child sexual material.

Article 37 prohibits conduct including:

• using a child in pornographic production;
• producing or distributing child pornography;
• possessing prohibited child sexual material;
• transmitting such material through the internet or other technology; and
• directly or indirectly sexually exploiting a child.

These matters can carry significantly more serious criminal penalties than some other violations of the Child Rights Law.

A suspected case of sexual exploitation should therefore be treated as an urgent child protection matter rather than an ordinary private family disagreement.

Can Child Abuse or Neglect Affect a Custody Case?

Yes, potentially.

Child protection proceedings and custody proceedings are legally distinct, but the same facts can become relevant to both.

Where parents disagree about custody, visitation or guardianship, evidence concerning matters such as:

• abuse;
• neglect;
• unsafe supervision;
• psychological harm; or
• failure to protect the child

can become relevant to decisions affecting the child’s welfare.

An allegation by itself is not automatically proof. Courts and competent authorities consider the evidence and circumstances of the case.

Parents dealing with separation can also review the wider rules explained in our guide to UAE divorce law.

Where child protection issues form part of a broader family dispute, Al Ramsy Advocates provides family law services in the UAE.

Are There Penalties for Breaching Wadeema’s Law?

Yes.

The law contains different penalties depending on the violation.

For example, Article 60 provides that certain breaches, including violations of Article 35 and failure by persons subject to the mandatory reporting requirement in Article 42(2), can result in:

• imprisonment; or
• a fine of at least AED 5,000.

Other offences under Wadeema’s Law carry more serious penalties, particularly where the conduct involves sexual exploitation, prohibited child sexual material or serious physical harm.

The applicable penalty should therefore be identified from the specific offence rather than applying one general punishment to every child protection case.

What Should You Do if a Child Is in Immediate Danger?

Where a child appears to face immediate danger, the priority is protecting the child rather than trying to investigate the case personally.

The situation should be reported promptly to the police or the appropriate child protection authority.

Where the concern is serious but not an immediate emergency, relevant child protection channels should still be used so that the circumstances can be assessed by the competent authorities.

Useful information may include:

• what happened;
• when it happened;
• where the child is;
• who may be involved;
• whether the danger is continuing; and
• any factual information already available.

Sensitive information about the child should not be circulated unnecessarily.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Wadeema’s Law in the UAE?

Wadeema’s Law is Federal Law No. 3 of 2016 Concerning Child Rights. It protects children under 18 and regulates rights relating to safety, care, education, healthcare and protection from abuse, neglect and exploitation.

Who must report suspected child abuse in the UAE?

Article 42 makes reporting mandatory for custodians, physicians, social workers and persons entrusted with the protection, care or education of a child where the statutory reporting conditions apply.

Can authorities remove a child from an unsafe home?

Yes. Article 51 allows urgent removal where a child faces significant harm or an imminent threat, followed by the required court procedure within the statutory timeframe.

Can child abuse affect custody in the UAE?

Potentially. Evidence of abuse, neglect or serious safety concerns can be relevant where a court is deciding custody or other arrangements affecting the child’s welfare.

The first wife’s consent is not listed as a validity requirement for a Muslim man’s second marriage, but the husband continues to have legal duties concerning maintenance, fair treatment and housing. Individuals dealing with marriage or personal status issues can obtain advice from family lawyers in the UAE.

What Is the Second Marriage Law in the UAE?

For Muslim marriages, Article 32 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024 prohibits marrying more than four women.

This means a Muslim man may have up to four wives at the same time, provided the marriage itself satisfies the legal requirements.

Article 32 also treats a wife who is still within the waiting period following a revocable divorce as relevant when calculating the four-wife limit.

A fifth simultaneous marriage is therefore not permitted while four qualifying marriages remain legally in force.

Does a Muslim Man Need His First Wife’s Consent to Marry Again?

The current federal Personal Status Law does not list the first wife’s consent as a condition for the validity of a second marriage.

Article 26 sets out the main validity requirements for a marriage contract, including:

• identification of the spouses;
• absence of a legal prohibition preventing the marriage;
• consent of the woman entering the marriage;
• guardian involvement where required; and
• two witnesses.

The consent required under Article 26 is the consent of the woman entering the new marriage.

It should not be confused with a requirement for the existing wife to approve the husband’s second marriage.

The new marriage must still follow the applicable marriage registration and documentation procedures.

What Duties Does a Husband Have Towards Multiple Wives?

The ability to enter another permitted marriage does not remove the husband’s existing legal obligations.

Under Article 49 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024, a husband must provide maintenance in accordance with the applicable rules and observe fairness between his wives in:

• treatment;
• division; and
• obligatory maintenance.

A second marriage therefore does not cancel the financial rights of an existing wife.

Housing

The law also regulates housing where a husband has more than one wife.

Under Article 105, more than one wife may live in the same building only where the accommodation is suitable and each wife has almost complete independence in the residence.

This can include separate or sufficiently independent:

• entrances and exits;
• sanitary facilities; and
• service facilities.

Where the arrangement causes harm, the court may impose additional conditions at the request of the affected wife.

What Rights Does the First Wife Have?

The first wife’s consent may not be required for the validity of the husband’s later marriage, but her rights under the existing marriage continue.

Depending on the circumstances, those rights can involve:

• maintenance;
• suitable housing;
• fair treatment;
• compliance with marital obligations; and
• valid conditions contained in the marriage contract.

Marriage Contract Conditions

Article 33 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024 regulates conditions included in a marriage contract.

A condition can be valid where it:

• does not contradict the essence of marriage;
• does not contradict its legal requirements;
• is not prohibited by Islamic Sharia; and
• is properly recorded as required by the law.

Where a valid written condition is breached, the spouse who stipulated it may have a statutory remedy, subject to Article 33.

Couples considering financial or marital conditions can also review how prenuptial agreements in the UAE operate under the different civil and Personal Status frameworks.

Can the First Wife Seek Divorce Because of the Second Marriage?

A second marriage does not automatically produce the same divorce right in every case.

However, Article 71 allows either spouse to seek divorce where proven harm makes continuation of married life impossible according to custom and reconciliation is not possible.

Whether the consequences of a second marriage amount to legally recognised harm depends on the facts and evidence.

A wife considering separation can discuss the available legal routes with divorce lawyers in the UAE.

What Rules Apply to Non-Muslim Civil Marriage?

The federal civil marriage framework is different from the Muslim Personal Status rules.

Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 and Cabinet Resolution No. 122 of 2023 regulate civil marriage for people falling within their scope.

Under the Executive Regulations:

• the wife must not have an existing marital relationship;
• the husband must also be free from an existing marriage where the legislation governing him does not permit polygamy; and
• the husband must disclose any existing marital relationship in all cases.

The civil marriage application also requires disclosure of marital status.

This means the federal civil framework should not be simplified into a blanket statement that every person must always be unmarried regardless of their applicable law.

Abu Dhabi Civil Marriage

Abu Dhabi has a separate local civil family framework.

For a civil marriage through the Abu Dhabi Civil Family Court, neither party may be married to another person at the time of application.

Where either party was previously married, proof that the earlier marriage ended may be required, such as:

• a divorce certificate; or
• a death certificate of the former spouse.

The applicable civil marriage system should therefore be identified before assuming that one set of rules applies throughout every civil marriage case in the UAE.

What if a Previous Marriage Took Place Outside the UAE?

A foreign marriage can still affect a later UAE marriage application.

Relevant questions may include:

• Is the foreign marriage legally valid?
• Has it been legally dissolved?
• Is the divorce final?
• Are the foreign marriage or divorce documents properly authenticated?
• Which personal status framework applies to the new marriage?
• Does the law of another country need to be considered?

For civil marriage applications, previous marital status must be properly disclosed where required.

For Muslim marriages, an existing marriage remains relevant when determining whether another marriage falls within the statutory four-wife limit.

A foreign marriage should therefore not be ignored simply because it was concluded outside the UAE.

How Does a Second Marriage Affect Family Rights?

A new marriage does not cancel existing legal obligations towards children or other family members.

Rights concerning:

• child maintenance;
• custody;
• guardianship;
• visitation; and
• other parental responsibilities

continue under the applicable family law framework.

A valid Muslim marriage can also create inheritance rights.

Where a deceased Muslim man leaves more than one wife who is legally entitled to inherit, the wives share the statutory portion allocated to the wife or wives rather than each receiving the entire spouse’s share separately.

The final inheritance result depends on the complete family structure. For more detail, see our guide to inheritance law in the UAE.

What Should You Check Before Entering a Second Marriage?

Before entering another marriage, identify the legal framework and current marital status.

For a Muslim marriage, check:

1. whether the proposed marriage is permitted under the current Personal Status Law;
2. how many existing marriages remain legally in force;
3. whether the new marriage satisfies Article 26;
4. whether any written marriage-contract conditions are relevant;
5. existing maintenance and housing obligations; and
6. whether foreign marriage or divorce documents need to be considered.

For a civil marriage, confirm:

1. which civil marriage framework applies;
2. the marital status requirements under that framework;
3. whether an earlier marriage has legally ended where required;
4. what disclosures must be made; and
5. whether foreign documents need authentication or recognition.

Checking these points before filing can prevent problems with registration or later disputes over marital rights.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can a Muslim man marry a second wife in the UAE?

Yes. Under Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024, a Muslim man may have more than one wife, subject to the legal requirements for marriage and a maximum of four wives at the same time.

Does a husband need his first wife’s permission to marry again?

The current federal Personal Status Law does not list the first wife’s consent as a validity condition for the husband’s second Muslim marriage. His legal obligations towards the existing wife continue.

How many wives can a Muslim man have in the UAE?

A Muslim man may have up to four wives at the same time. Article 32 prohibits marrying more than four women.

Can a non-Muslim enter a second civil marriage in the UAE?

It depends on the applicable civil marriage framework and the person’s existing marital status. The federal Executive Regulations contain specific rules based partly on the legislation governing the husband, while Abu Dhabi Civil Family Court requires neither party to be married to another person at the time of application.

The applicable law affects who inherits, the shares they receive and how a Will can change the default result. UAE residents and expatriates who want to plan the distribution of their assets can also review their options through Will writing services in the UAE.

What Is the Current Inheritance Law in the UAE?

There is no single inheritance formula for every estate.

The current position can be summarised as follows:

Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024 replaced Federal Law No. 28 of 2005, so inheritance guidance relying on the former law may contain outdated article references.

Before calculating shares, identify:

• the deceased’s religion and nationality;
• all surviving heirs;
• whether a valid Will exists;
• the location and nature of the assets; and
• whether another law may apply.

How Does Inheritance Work for Non-Muslims in the UAE?

Article 11 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 sets out civil inheritance rules for people falling within its scope.

Where a person dies without a Will and leaves a spouse and children:

• 50% of the inheritance passes to the surviving spouse;
• the remaining 50% is divided equally among the children; and
• sons and daughters are treated equally in that distribution.

For example, where the deceased leaves a spouse, one son and one daughter, the spouse receives half of the relevant inheritance and the two children divide the remaining half equally.

Where there are no children, Article 11 contains separate rules involving the deceased’s parents and siblings.

The complete family structure should therefore be established before calculating the estate.

Can a Non-Muslim Make a Will?

Yes.

The civil framework allows a person within its scope to make a Will dealing with UAE property, subject to the applicable legal and registration requirements.

A Will may address matters such as:

• real estate;
• bank accounts;
• investments;
• company shares;
• beneficiaries;
• executors; and
• guardianship arrangements for minor children.

Article 13 also provides for the registration of Wills under the applicable procedures.

For non-Muslims, a properly structured Will can therefore significantly affect the result that would otherwise follow from the default intestate rules.

Key Inheritance Shares Under the UAE Personal Status Law

For estates governed by Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024, inheritance follows detailed Sharia-based rules.

The final distribution depends on the complete group of surviving heirs.

Under Article 211, a husband receives half where his deceased wife leaves no inheriting descendant and one-quarter where an inheriting descendant exists.

Under Article 212, a wife receives one-quarter where her husband leaves no inheriting descendant and one-eighth where one exists. If there is more than one wife entitled to inherit, they share the applicable wife’s portion.

Article 217 deals with daughters. Where a son and daughter inherit together as residuary descendants, the male receives twice the female’s share.

This does not mean that every male heir always receives twice as much as every female heir.

Different relationships and family structures produce different inheritance shares.

What Happens Before an Estate Is Distributed?

Inheritance shares are calculated against the estate remaining after the prior legal obligations have been dealt with.

Under Article 201 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024, rights relating to the estate are dealt with in this order:

1. proper funeral preparation expenses;
2. settlement of the deceased’s debts;
3. execution of the Will within the one-third limit, unless the heirs consent to an excess; and
4. distribution of the remaining estate among the heirs.

This means heirs do not simply divide the deceased’s gross assets.

For example, if the deceased owns AED 2 million in assets but also leaves significant debts, those debts must be dealt with before the remaining estate is distributed.

Can a Muslim Make a Will in the UAE?

Yes.

A Muslim can make a Will, but the Personal Status Law places limits on the testamentary portion of the estate.

Under the current framework, the Will is generally executed within one-third of the estate, after the prior estate obligations have been addressed.

For example, if the relevant net estate is AED 900,000, the one-third testamentary portion would be AED 300,000.

A Will exceeding the one-third limit is not automatically treated in the same way as a Will within that limit. The effect of the excess can depend on the consent of the heirs and the other statutory requirements.

The position should therefore be reviewed against:

• the value of the estate;
• the proposed beneficiaries;
• the surviving heirs; and
• any consent required under the law.

A Muslim Will should not simply copy the structure of a non-Muslim civil Will.

Where Can a Will Be Registered in the UAE?

The appropriate registration route depends on the person’s circumstances, assets and applicable legal framework.

DIFC Courts Wills Service

The DIFC Courts Wills Service provides a specialised Will registration and probate framework for eligible non-Muslims.

Depending on the Will selected and the person’s circumstances, arrangements can address matters such as:

• UAE assets;
• real estate;
• financial assets;
• business interests;
• executors; and
• guardianship.

For more detail, see Al Ramsy’s guide to DIFC Wills in Dubai.

Abu Dhabi Civil Wills

The Abu Dhabi Judicial Department provides a civil Will registration route for qualifying non-Muslims.

The suitability of this route depends on the testator’s circumstances and the applicable requirements.

Dubai Will Procedures

Dubai Courts and relevant notarial procedures may also be available depending on the testator and the legal framework governing the Will.

The registration route should ideally be identified before the document is finalised because form, language and execution requirements can differ.

What Happens to Property and Business Assets After Death?

Real estate and company interests can form part of the deceased’s estate, but transferring them generally requires more than simply identifying the beneficiary.

UAE Property

For real estate, the relevant succession entitlement and court or probate authority normally need to be established before ownership records can be changed.

Relevant issues can include:

• the title deed;
• mortgage liabilities;
• the applicable Will;
• recognised heirs or beneficiaries;
• court documentation; and
• land authority transfer requirements.

Where significant property is involved, succession planning may need to be coordinated with real estate lawyers in the UAE.

Company Shares

Business owners may leave:

• LLC shares;
• holding-company interests;
• partnership interests;
• DIFC company shares; or
• other business assets.

The inheritance position may need to be considered together with:

• company constitutional documents;
• shareholders’ agreements;
• transfer restrictions;
• succession clauses; and
• applicable corporate procedures.

A Will can identify an intended beneficiary, but the required legal and corporate transfer procedures may still need to be completed.

How Is an Estate Administered in the UAE?

The exact process depends on the applicable law, court, emirate and assets involved.

A typical estate may involve:

1. obtaining the official death documentation;
2. identifying the applicable inheritance framework or Will;
3. identifying the deceased’s assets;
4. establishing debts and estate liabilities;
5. determining the heirs or beneficiaries;
6. obtaining the necessary court or probate authority; and
7. transferring and distributing the assets.

Foreign-issued documents may require translation, legalisation or authentication before they can be used in UAE proceedings.

Property, company shares, bank accounts and overseas assets may also require separate transfer procedures.

For wider estate planning and family asset matters, Al Ramsy Advocates provides family law services in the UAE.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the current inheritance law in the UAE?

Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024 is the current general Personal Status Law and contains the principal Sharia-based inheritance rules. Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 provides a separate civil inheritance framework for qualifying non-Muslims.

What happens if a non-Muslim dies without a Will in the UAE?

Where Article 11 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 applies and the deceased leaves a spouse and children, the spouse receives 50% of the inheritance and the remaining 50% is divided equally among the children.

Does a son always inherit twice as much as a daughter?

No. Under the Personal Status Law, the two-to-one rule applies in specified inheritance relationships, including where sons and daughters inherit together as residuary descendants. It is not a universal rule for every male and female heir.

Can an expat register a Will in the UAE?

Yes, subject to the eligibility and procedural requirements of the relevant registration route. Depending on the person’s circumstances, available options may include DIFC Courts Wills, Abu Dhabi civil Will procedures and applicable Dubai Will registration processes.

The law that applies can affect how divorce is obtained, whether fault must be proved, financial claims, child custody and the court procedure. Anyone considering separation can also obtain advice from divorce lawyers in the UAE before filing or agreeing financial and child-related terms.

What Is the Current UAE Divorce Law?

The current federal position can be summarised as follows:

Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024 replaced the former Federal Law No. 28 of 2005, so older UAE divorce guidance based on the 2005 law may no longer reflect the current position.

The applicable framework can also depend on nationality, religion, residence, the place of marriage and the court dealing with the case.

How Does Non-Muslim Civil Divorce Work in the UAE?

Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 provides a separate civil divorce system for people falling within its scope.

Under Articles 7 and 8, either spouse may request divorce without proving harm, misconduct or responsibility for the breakdown of the marriage.

This means a spouse does not need to prove adultery, abandonment or another marital fault simply to obtain the civil divorce.

Article 3 also excludes civil divorce proceedings under this law from referral to Family Guidance, allowing the case to proceed directly to the court.

The divorce itself can therefore be relatively straightforward, although financial claims and child-related issues may still require separate consideration.

For non-Muslim foreign residents, Article 1 also allows a qualifying party to invoke the law of their home country in specified personal status matters, including divorce.

How Does Divorce Work Under the UAE Personal Status Law?

Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024 governs the current general Personal Status framework.

Different routes can apply depending on the circumstances.

Divorce

The law regulates divorce pronounced in accordance with the statutory Personal Status rules and the requirements for documenting its legal effect.

Khul’

Under Article 65, khul’ is a separation requested by the wife and accepted in exchange for consideration offered by her or another person.

Article 66 regulates the consideration that may be involved and makes clear that children’s maintenance or custody rights cannot be waived as the consideration for khul’.

Judicial Separation for Harm

Under Article 71, either spouse may seek divorce where legally recognised harm makes continuation of married life impossible according to custom and the harm is proven.

Other statutory grounds may also apply depending on the facts.

Does Every Muslim Divorce Go Through Family Guidance?

No.

Under Article 8 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024, the supervising judge may refer the parties to Family Guidance where an amicable settlement appears possible.

However, the law also exempts cases where reconciliation is not considered feasible, including proceedings to prove a divorce.

Family Guidance should therefore not be described as automatically mandatory for every divorce-related case in the UAE.

Financial Rights and Alimony After Divorce

Financial rights depend on which legal framework applies.

A divorce judgment does not automatically resolve every issue involving maintenance, housing, compensation or other financial claims.

Non-Muslim Civil Divorce

Under Article 9 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022, a divorced woman may seek alimony where the relevant financial rights have not already been determined by agreement.

The court may consider factors including:

• duration of the marriage;
• the wife’s age;
• the financial position of each spouse;
• the circumstances leading to the divorce;
• financial or moral harm; and
• whether children are involved.

There is no single statutory formula that automatically calculates civil alimony as a fixed percentage of salary.

Couples who want to define financial arrangements before marriage may also consider how a prenuptial agreement in the UAE could interact with the applicable personal status framework.

Personal Status Law

Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024 applies a different maintenance and compensation system.

For example, Article 102 provides for compensation in specified circumstances where a husband ends a valid consummated marriage by his sole decision without a request or cause attributable to the wife, or where the separation is attributable to him.

The compensation is separate from waiting-period maintenance and is assessed according to the statutory conditions.

Child Custody and Support After Divorce

Child custody rules also differ between the two frameworks.

Non-Muslim Civil Custody

The civil framework recognises joint custody as the starting principle after divorce.

Cabinet Resolution No. 122 of 2023 provides that the court generally grants joint custody equally between the parents unless one of the recognised exceptions applies.

Those exceptions can include:

• one parent waiving custody;
• a parent requesting sole custody; or
• circumstances where another arrangement better protects the child’s interests.

The father is generally responsible for children’s financial support under the Executive Regulation, including expenses such as housing, education and healthcare, unless the spouses have agreed otherwise.

Custody Under the Personal Status Law

Under Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024, custody is governed by the current statutory custody rules rather than the older age limits found in repealed legislation.

Custody generally continues until the child reaches 18 Gregorian years, subject to the law and the child’s best interests.

Where custody, visitation, relocation or travel becomes disputed, child custody lawyers in the UAE can assess the appropriate legal route.

Can Expats Use Their Home-Country Divorce Law?

In some cases, yes.

For qualifying non-Muslim foreign residents, Article 1 of Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 allows a party to invoke their home-country law in specified personal status matters, including divorce.

The current Personal Status Law also contains choice-of-law provisions relevant to non-UAE citizens.

Whether foreign law should be relied on depends on factors such as:

• nationality;
• residence;
• the marriage documents;
• the country where the marriage took place;
• children;
• property and financial issues;
• UAE public policy; and
• where any divorce judgment will later need to be recognised or enforced.

For cross-border families, this question should ideally be considered before proceedings begin.

How Long Does Divorce Take in the UAE?

There is no single timeline for every UAE divorce.

A straightforward civil divorce can move faster than a contested case involving custody, financial claims, service issues or foreign law.

The timeline can depend on:

• whether the divorce is contested;
• whether Family Guidance or conciliation applies;
• service on the other spouse;
• financial disputes;
• custody issues;
• expert evidence;
• foreign documents; and
• appeals or enforcement.

A fixed statement that every UAE divorce takes a particular number of weeks or months would therefore be misleading.

What Should You Prepare Before Filing for Divorce?

Before filing, identify the legal framework and organise the documents relevant to the case.

Commonly relevant documents can include:

• passports and Emirates IDs;
• marriage certificate;
• children’s birth certificates;
• translated and attested foreign documents where required;
• financial and income records where maintenance is claimed;
• evidence relevant to custody or disputed facts; and
• any existing marital or settlement agreements.

It is also important to establish:

1. which personal status framework applies;
2. whether foreign law may be relevant;
3. which court has jurisdiction;
4. whether Family Guidance or conciliation applies;
5. whether urgent maintenance or custody applications are required; and
6. what financial or child-related claims need to be dealt with.

For wider personal status matters involving marriage, children or family agreements, Al Ramsy Advocates also provides family law services in the UAE.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the current UAE divorce law?

Muslim personal status matters are principally governed by Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2024, while Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 provides a separate civil framework for qualifying non-Muslims.

Can a non-Muslim get a no-fault divorce in the UAE?

Yes. Under Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022, either spouse may request civil divorce without proving harm or fault, subject to the law’s scope and procedure.

Is Family Guidance mandatory before divorce?

Not in every case. Civil divorce under Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 is exempt from Family Guidance, while under the 2024 Personal Status Law referral depends on the type of case and whether reconciliation is considered feasible.

Is child custody automatically given to the mother?

No single rule applies across both frameworks. The civil framework starts from joint custody, while the Personal Status Law applies its own custody rules based on the statutory requirements and the child’s interests.

Unpaid leave means the employee does not receive wages for the approved period, and the period generally does not count toward the service period used to calculate end-of-service benefits. Certain unpaid periods arise under specific statutory leave provisions, such as extended maternity-related leave and the unpaid portion of sick leave.

Unpaid Leave Under UAE Labour Law

Unpaid leave in the UAE allows an employee to take time away from work without receiving their normal salary for that period. For general unpaid leave, Article 33 of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 provides that a worker may take unpaid leave after obtaining the employer’s approval.

This is different from statutory paid leave, where the law establishes a specific entitlement once the relevant conditions are met. General unpaid leave under Article 33 is subject to employer approval and is intended to cover circumstances that are not already addressed by the other statutory leave provisions.

The UAE Labour Law applies to private-sector employment relationships covered by Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021. Different employment regimes can apply in areas such as the DIFC and ADGM, while domestic workers are governed by separate legislation.

General Unpaid Leave Requires Employer Approval

An employee cannot generally take Article 33 unpaid leave unilaterally; the law requires the employer’s approval before the leave is taken.

The law does not establish a fixed number of days for general unpaid leave under Article 33. Instead, the leave is subject to the employer’s approval and the arrangement between the parties.

For employees, this means that submitting a leave request does not by itself create an entitlement to be absent. The employee should wait for approval and keep evidence of the approved dates.

For employers, unpaid leave should be properly recorded, including the approved period and the corresponding payroll treatment. Clear documentation can help prevent later disagreements about whether an absence was authorised.

Approved Unpaid Leave vs Unauthorised Absence

These should not be treated as the same situation.

Article 34 provides that a worker who does not return directly to work after leave, without a legitimate reason, is not entitled to wages for the period of absence after the leave ends.

Salary and Payroll Treatment During Unpaid Leave

An employee does not receive their normal wage for the period covered by approved unpaid leave. The unpaid days therefore reduce the amount payable for the relevant payroll period.

The exact payroll calculation can depend on the employer’s payroll system, the employee’s wage structure, and the number of unpaid days.

For example, if an employee is approved for five days of unpaid leave, the employer should reflect those five days as unpaid absence in the relevant payroll records rather than treating them as paid annual leave or another type of paid leave.

Employers should also distinguish between:

• Basic salary
• Fixed allowances
• Variable compensation
• Attendance-related payments
• Bonuses or commissions
• Other contractual benefits

The treatment of benefits during unpaid leave may depend on the employment contract, company policy, and the nature of the benefit. Therefore, employers should avoid assuming that every allowance or benefit must automatically be treated in the same way as salary.

Effect of Unpaid Leave on End-of-Service Benefits

General unpaid leave under Article 33 is excluded from the worker’s service term, which means the period does not contribute to the service period used for end-of-service benefit calculations.

This distinction matters when an employee has taken a substantial amount of unpaid leave during their employment.

For example, an employee may have been employed for five calendar years but taken several months of approved general unpaid leave. The unpaid period is not simply treated as ordinary active service when determining the relevant service period under Article 33.

Example of the Service-Term Impact

Suppose an employee has:

The actual calculation of end-of-service benefits should consider the applicable gratuity rules, the employee’s status, and any other periods that the law specifically excludes.

This is particularly important when an employee is approaching a service milestone that affects the gratuity calculation.

Statutory Unpaid Periods Under UAE Labour Law

General unpaid leave under Article 33 is not the only situation in which an employee may be absent without pay. Certain other provisions of the Labour Law specifically provide for unpaid periods.

The statutory provisions should not be combined into one generic “unpaid leave entitlement.” Each category has its own eligibility requirements and legal treatment.

Extended Maternity-Related Unpaid Leave

A female worker who has used her statutory maternity leave may be absent without pay for up to 45 continuous or intermittent days where she or her child suffers an illness resulting from pregnancy or childbirth that prevents her from returning to work. The illness must be established by a medical certificate. This period is expressly excluded from the service term used for end-of-service benefits.

There is also a separate provision where a worker gives birth to a sick child or a child of determination whose condition requires constant care. After the maternity leave, the worker may receive 30 days with full pay and may extend the leave by another 30 days without pay, subject to the statutory conditions.

Unpaid Sick Leave

Under Article 31, a worker who has completed probation may receive up to 90 days of sick leave per year, whether consecutive or intermittent:

During probation, the worker is not entitled to paid sick leave, although the employer may grant unpaid sick leave where a medical report establishes that it is necessary.

Hajj Leave

UAE government guidance recognises special unpaid leave for employees performing Hajj, generally for up to 30 days and once during the employment period with the employer. This should be treated separately from general Article 33 unpaid leave because it has its own purpose and conditions.

Umrah should not automatically be treated as a statutory Hajj leave entitlement. Where an employee needs time off for Umrah, the arrangement may instead depend on annual leave, approved general unpaid leave, or the employer’s policy.

Employer Responsibilities When Approving Unpaid Leave

Employers should treat unpaid leave as a documented employment arrangement rather than simply removing salary for unexplained absences.

Key steps include:

• Confirming that the leave has been approved.
• Recording the start and end dates.
• Identifying whether the leave is general unpaid leave or a statutory unpaid period.
• Applying the appropriate payroll deduction.
• Maintaining accurate attendance and leave records.
• Confirming the employee’s expected return date.
• Reviewing whether the period affects service-related entitlements.
• Ensuring that unpaid leave is not used to bypass statutory paid-leave rights.

A written leave request and approval record can provide useful evidence for both sides, even where the legislation itself refers to employer approval rather than prescribing a particular written-agreement format.

Employee Rights and Responsibilities During Unpaid Leave

Employees should also understand that approved unpaid leave does not mean the employment relationship has ended.

During an approved unpaid leave period, the employee should:

• Follow the agreed leave dates.
• Keep a copy of the approval.
• Return to work on the agreed date.
• Obtain further approval if the leave needs to be extended.
• Check how the absence affects salary and service-related benefits.
• Avoid treating an unapproved extension as automatically protected leave.

Failing to return after an approved leave period without a legitimate reason can result in the employee losing wages for the subsequent period of absence and may create further employment consequences.

Unpaid Leave During the Notice Period

Unpaid leave can also intersect with an employee’s notice period, but the two concepts should not be confused.

Under Article 43, the normal notice period for termination must be between 30 and 90 days, and the employment contract remains effective during the notice period. The worker is generally entitled to their wage during that period.

Article 35 also provides a specific rule for termination while a worker is on leave: unless the parties agree otherwise, the notice period does not begin until the day after the worker’s scheduled return from leave.

This means an employee should not assume that taking unpaid leave automatically shortens or replaces the contractual notice period.

Unpaid Leave and End-of-Service Gratuity Calculations

The impact of unpaid leave is especially relevant when calculating end-of-service gratuity.

Under the UAE Labour Law, eligible foreign full-time workers generally receive gratuity based on their last basic wage and qualifying service period. Article 33 separately states that general unpaid leave is not included in the worker’s service term.

As a result, an employer calculating final benefits should identify approved unpaid periods rather than simply using the employee’s calendar employment dates.

For employees, this means that taking unpaid leave may have a longer-term financial effect than the immediate salary deduction because the excluded period may also affect the service period used for end-of-service benefits.

Unpaid Leave Disputes Between Employers and Employees

Disputes can arise when:

• An employee believes unpaid leave was approved but payroll deducted additional days.
• An employer records an absence as unpaid leave when the employee says it was paid or statutory leave.
• An employee does not return on the agreed date.
• The parties disagree about the duration of approved leave.
• Unpaid leave is incorrectly included or excluded when calculating end-of-service benefits.
• An employer refuses a request that the employee believes is a statutory leave entitlement.
• The employee is placed on unpaid leave without the approval required for Article 33 leave.

The first step is usually to review the employment contract, leave request, approval records, attendance records, payroll statements and relevant medical or supporting documents.

Where the issue cannot be resolved internally, the employee or employer may need to use the applicable labour-dispute process.

How Al Ramsy Advocates Can Help With Unpaid Leave Disputes

Unpaid-leave disputes can involve more than a salary deduction. The legal issue may also concern whether the absence was authorised, whether a statutory leave provision applies, and whether the period affects service-related entitlements.

Labour & Employment Lawyers can assess the employment relationship, applicable leave provisions, contract terms and supporting records to determine the legal position.

The firm can assist with matters involving:

• Unpaid-leave requests and disputes
• Leave entitlement and approval issues
• Salary deductions during unpaid leave
• Employment-contract interpretation
• End-of-service benefit implications
• Disputes concerning unauthorised absence
• MOHRE labour disputes
• Employment-related litigation where formal proceedings are required

Where a leave dispute develops into a formal employment claim, Al Ramsy’s Employment Litigation Lawyers can provide representation and litigation support in accordance with the applicable UAE legal process.

Practical Checklist Before Taking Unpaid Leave

Employees should confirm the following before starting unpaid leave:

Employers should maintain equivalent records to demonstrate that the leave was properly approved, recorded and reflected in payroll.

Frequently Asked Questions About Unpaid Leave in the UAE

Is unpaid leave a legal right in the UAE?

General unpaid leave under Article 33 is not an automatic entitlement; it requires employer approval. Separate statutory provisions may provide specific unpaid periods where their legal conditions are satisfied.

Can an employer force an employee to take unpaid leave?

Article 33 addresses unpaid leave taken after the employer’s approval. It does not provide a general mechanism for an employer to simply designate any period as Article 33 unpaid leave without the required approval. Other provisions of the Labour Law may apply to temporary suspension or other employment situations.

Does unpaid leave affect gratuity in the UAE?

General unpaid leave under Article 33 is excluded from the employee’s service term, so it can reduce the qualifying service period used for end-of-service benefit calculations.

Is unpaid sick leave included in the 90-day sick-leave period?

Yes. After the first 15 days at full pay and the next 30 days at half pay, the remaining period within the maximum 90-day sick-leave entitlement is unpaid.

How many days of unpaid maternity-related leave are available in the UAE?

A female worker may take up to 45 additional unpaid days after maternity leave where she or her child has a pregnancy- or childbirth-related illness that prevents her from returning to work, subject to a medical certificate and the conditions in Article 30.

Conclusion

Unpaid leave in the UAE is not a single category with one set of rules. General unpaid leave under Article 33 requires employer approval and is excluded from the worker’s service term, while specific unpaid periods can arise under provisions dealing with maternity-related illness, sick leave and Hajj.

For eligible full-time foreign employees, end-of-service gratuity is calculated using the last basic wage: 21 days’ basic wage for each year of service during the first five years and 30 days for each additional year, provided the employee has completed at least one year of continuous service. The total gratuity is capped at the equivalent of two years’ wage.

Under Article 53 of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021, the employer must pay the employee’s wages and other applicable end-of-contract entitlements within 14 days from the date the contract ends.

Benefits of Employment Termination in the UAE

When a private-sector employment relationship ends, the employee’s final settlement can include several different amounts.

The exact entitlement depends on factors such as:

• The employee’s nationality and employment category
• Whether the employee is full-time or part-time
• Length of continuous service
• Basic wage at the end of employment
• Whether notice was served
• Accrued but unused annual leave
• Outstanding salary or other contractual payments
• The reason and legal basis for termination
• Whether any lawful deductions apply

Termination benefits should therefore not be treated as one single payment.

A typical final settlement may contain:

The employee’s final settlement is the combined value of the applicable entitlements, rather than gratuity alone.

Who Is Entitled to End-of-Service Gratuity in the UAE?

Under Article 51 of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021, a foreign full-time employee who has completed at least one year of continuous service is entitled to end-of-service gratuity when employment ends.

Employees who have completed less than one year of continuous service are generally not entitled to statutory gratuity.

An employee who has completed at least one year may also receive a proportionate gratuity for a fraction of a year after the first year, subject to the applicable rules. Periods of unpaid absence are excluded when calculating the period of service for gratuity purposes.

UAE nationals are subject to the applicable pension and social-security framework rather than the foreign-worker gratuity calculation under Article 51.

Resignation Affect on Gratuity

Under the current UAE private-sector framework, completing the required period of continuous service is the key eligibility condition for the statutory gratuity calculation.

The previous system under which resignation could reduce gratuity based on length of service should not be applied to employment relationships governed by the current Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021.

UAE End-of-Service Gratuity Calculations

For an eligible full-time foreign employee, gratuity is calculated using the employee’s last basic wage, not the total salary including allowances.

The statutory formula is:

What Salary Is Used for Gratuity?

Gratuity is calculated on the employee’s last basic wage, excluding allowances such as housing and transportation.

For example, if an employee receives:

• Basic salary: AED 6,000
• Housing allowance: AED 2,000
• Transport allowance: AED 1,000
• Total salary: AED 9,000

The gratuity calculation is based on the AED 6,000 basic salary, rather than the AED 9,000 total package.

UAE Gratuity Calculation Example

Suppose an employee has:

• Basic salary: AED 6,000
• Continuous service: 4 years

First, calculate the daily basic wage:

AED 6,000 ÷ 30 = AED 200 per day

The employee receives 21 days for each year during the first five years:

AED 200 × 21 = AED 4,200 per year

For four years:

AED 4,200 × 4 = AED 16,800

The employee’s estimated statutory gratuity would therefore be AED 16,800, before considering any applicable adjustments or lawful deductions.

Gratuity Example After Five Years

Suppose the same employee has completed 7 years of continuous service.

First five years:

AED 200 × 21 × 5 = AED 21,000

Remaining two years:

AED 200 × 30 × 2 = AED 12,000

Total:

AED 21,000 + AED 12,000 = AED 33,000

The applicable two-year cap must then be checked against the resulting amount.

UAE Gratuity Calculator for End-of-Service Benefits

Use our UAE gratuity calculator to estimate your end-of-service gratuity based on your salary, length of service, and applicable employment terms under UAE Labour Law.

Use the UAE Gratuity Calculator

What Other Payments Are Included in the Final Settlement?

End-of-service gratuity is only one part of the final settlement.

Unpaid Salary

Any unpaid salary that is earned but not yet paid up to the end of the employment contract should be included in the final settlement.

This can include salary for the final working period and other wages that have already become due.

Unused Annual Leave

An employee may be entitled to payment for accrued annual leave that remains unused when employment ends.

Unused leave is separate from the gratuity calculation. It should not simply be added to the years of service when calculating gratuity.

The calculation of leave compensation can depend on the employee’s wage and the applicable legal rules.

Unpaid Overtime

If overtime has been properly established but remains unpaid, it may form part of the amounts owed to the employee.

Employees should retain attendance records, overtime approvals, timesheets, emails, messages and payslips where an overtime dispute exists.

Other Contractual or Statutory Entitlements

Depending on the employment relationship, the final settlement may also include other amounts that have become due under the employment contract or applicable legislation.

UAE Employment Contract Review Lawyers for Employers and Employees

Al Ramsy Advocates reviews employment contracts, job offers, and employment agreements to identify legal risks, clarify key terms, and help employers and employees understand their rights and obligations under UAE law.

Explore Employment Contract Review Services

UAE Labour Law – Notice Pay

The UAE Labour Law generally requires either party wishing to terminate an employment contract to provide written notice to the other party.

The notice period agreed in the employment contract must generally be at least 30 days and no more than 90 days.

What Happens If the Notice Period Is Not Served?

If either party terminates the employment relationship without observing the required notice period, the party responsible for the unserved notice must generally pay compensation to the other party equivalent to the employee’s wage for the whole notice period or the remaining part of it.

This is commonly referred to as notice pay or payment in lieu of notice.

For example, if an employee has a 60-day contractual notice period but only works 20 days, the unserved portion is 40 days. The applicable compensation is assessed based on the wage corresponding to those 40 days.

Notice Pay VS Gratuity

Notice pay and gratuity are separate entitlements.

An employee may therefore be entitled to more than one of these payments when employment ends.

How Long Does an Employer Have to Pay Final Dues?

Under Article 53 of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021, the employer must pay the employee’s wages and other entitlements due under the Labour Law, implementing regulations, employment contract or applicable establishment rules within 14 days from the date the contract ends.

The 14-day period applies to the settlement of applicable end-of-contract entitlements.

A final settlement may therefore need to account for:

• Final unpaid salary
• End-of-service gratuity
• Accrued annual leave
• Notice-period compensation where applicable
• Other outstanding statutory or contractual amounts

What Can Be Deducted From Final Settlement?

An employee’s final payment does not necessarily mean that every amount is paid without adjustment.

The law permits certain deductions in circumstances where the employee owes amounts to the employer or where a deduction is otherwise legally permitted.

Examples can include certain:

• Outstanding loans or advances
• Overpayments
• Amounts established as legally recoverable
• Other deductions permitted under the Labour Law and applicable procedures

Employers should not make arbitrary deductions from gratuity or other final dues; any deduction must have a lawful basis and comply with the applicable requirements.

Employees should request a clear written breakdown where deductions are made from a final settlement.

What Happens to Gratuity If You Resign?

Resignation does not automatically eliminate an eligible employee’s statutory gratuity entitlement under the current private-sector Labour Law.

If the employee has completed at least one year of continuous service and meets the applicable eligibility requirements, gratuity is calculated under Article 51 using the prescribed basic-wage formula.

The employee should still comply with the applicable notice requirements unless a lawful exception applies.

This means two separate questions should be considered:

1. Is the employee eligible for gratuity?
2. Has the employee properly served the required notice period?

The answer to one does not automatically determine the other.

What Happens If the Employer Terminates the Employee?

The employee’s entitlements depend on how the termination occurs and the legal basis for it.

An employment contract may end in several circumstances, including:

• Written agreement between the parties
• Expiry of the contract
• Termination by either party in accordance with the applicable notice rules
• Termination without notice in circumstances permitted by law
• Other circumstances recognised under the Labour Law

Where termination involves misconduct or another ground allowing dismissal without notice, the employer must comply with the applicable statutory conditions and procedures.

Employment termination without notice should therefore not automatically be treated as unlawful or lawful simply because the employer used that description. The specific facts and legal basis matter.

Unlawful Termination Compensation

Termination benefits and compensation for unlawful termination are not necessarily the same thing.

The Labour Law provides specific rules for termination, including situations where an employee may be dismissed without notice and circumstances in which a termination may give rise to a legal claim.

If an employee believes the termination was unlawful or that the employer failed to comply with the required procedure, the issue may be raised through the applicable labour-dispute process.

The employee should preserve:

• Termination letter
• Employment contract
• Notice correspondence
• Emails and messages
• Performance or disciplinary records
• Salary slips
• Final-settlement calculation
• Any other documents relating to the termination

Alternative End-of-Service Benefits Scheme

The UAE has also introduced an optional alternative end-of-service benefits system for eligible private-sector employees and workers.

Under this system, participating employers make contributions into approved investment funds on behalf of enrolled employees. The scheme operates differently from the traditional gratuity system.

Employees already covered by the scheme may therefore need to determine:

• Whether their employer enrolled them
• When participation started
• What gratuity had accrued before enrolment
• What contributions were made under the alternative scheme
• Which payment rules apply when employment ends

The traditional gratuity calculation should not automatically be applied to an employee whose employment benefits are governed by the alternative scheme.

Domestic Workers Are Governed by a Different Law

The rules in this article concern employees covered by the UAE private-sector Labour Law, Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021.

Domestic workers are excluded from that law and are governed by a separate framework under Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2022 Concerning Domestic Workers.

This distinction matters when calculating termination benefits because the rules for domestic workers should not simply be copied from the general private-sector framework.

Likewise, employees working in jurisdictions with their own employment legislation, such as the DIFC or ADGM, should check the applicable regime before relying on the federal Labour Law.

What You Should Check Before Signing a Final Settlement

Before signing a document confirming that all employment dues have been received, employees should review the settlement calculation carefully.

Check whether it includes:

An employee should avoid confirming that all dues have been received if the amounts have not actually been paid or the settlement contains an unresolved discrepancy. A written breakdown can help identify errors before a dispute escalates.

Unpaid Final Dues and Employee Rights

If an employer does not pay the employee’s final salary, gratuity or other applicable entitlements within the required period, the employee can seek resolution through the UAE labour-dispute process.

The Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratisation (MOHRE) may examine an employment dispute and attempt to resolve it amicably. Where the dispute cannot be resolved through the applicable process, it may proceed to the competent court.

Before filing a complaint, the employee should gather the documents supporting the claim and calculate each disputed amount separately.

For example:

Claim = unpaid salary + gratuity + unused leave + notice pay + other applicable dues − lawful deductions

Keeping each component separate makes it easier to identify where the disagreement actually lies.

How Al Ramsy Advocates Can Help With Termination Benefits

Termination disputes often involve several calculations at the same time. A disagreement may concern the employee’s basic salary, length of service, notice period, unused leave, deductions or the legality of the termination itself.

Al Ramsy Advocates can assist employers and employees with UAE employment matters, including termination, employment contracts, unpaid wages, end-of-service benefits and labour disputes.

Legal support may include:

• Reviewing the employment contract and termination documents
• Checking the employee’s gratuity calculation
• Reviewing the basic salary used for gratuity
• Assessing notice-period obligations and notice pay
• Reviewing unused annual leave and other final dues
• Examining deductions from the final settlement
• Advising employers on termination procedures
• Assisting employees with disputed termination benefits
• Supporting clients through applicable MOHRE procedures
• Representing clients in employment litigation where required

Where a dispute cannot be resolved through the relevant administrative process, Al Ramsy’s Employment Litigation Lawyers can assist with the legal proceedings and related employment claims.

UAE Employment Litigation Lawyers for Employers and Employees

Al Ramsy Advocates provides employment litigation and legal representation in termination disputes, unpaid wages, employment contracts, workplace disputes, and other labour matters before the courts across Dubai and the UAE.

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Frequently Asked Questions About UAE Labour Law Termination Benefits

How is unused annual leave paid when leaving a job in the UAE?

Unused accrued annual leave may form part of the employee’s final settlement when employment ends. The amount should be calculated according to the applicable UAE Labour Law and the employee’s accrued leave entitlement.

Is notice pay based on basic salary or total salary in the UAE?

Notice pay is generally calculated based on the employee’s wage for the applicable notice period, unlike end-of-service gratuity, which is calculated using the employee’s basic wage. The exact amount depends on the circumstances of termination and the notice period that was served or remains outstanding.

What should be included in a UAE final settlement?

A final settlement may include unpaid salary, end-of-service gratuity where applicable, payment for accrued unused annual leave, notice pay where applicable, and other contractual or statutory entitlements, subject to lawful deductions. Employers must generally pay wages and other end-of-contract entitlements within 14 days of the contract ending.

How much gratuity do employees get after 5 years in the UAE?

An eligible full-time foreign employee who completes five years of continuous service receives gratuity calculated at 21 days of the last basic wage for each of those five years. The calculation is based on basic wage rather than the employee’s total salary package.

Is gratuity calculated on basic salary or total salary in the UAE?

End-of-service gratuity is calculated using the employee’s last basic wage, excluding allowances such as housing and transport.

How many days does an employer have to pay final settlement in the UAE?

The employer must pay wages and other applicable end-of-contract entitlements within 14 days from the date the employment contract ends.

What payments are included in a UAE final settlement?

A final settlement can include unpaid salary, end-of-service gratuity, payment for accrued unused annual leave, notice-period compensation where applicable, and other contractual or statutory entitlements. The exact components depend on the employee’s circumstances.

Do employees get gratuity if they resign in the UAE?

An eligible foreign full-time employee who has completed at least one year of continuous service can qualify for statutory gratuity when employment ends, including where the employee resigns, subject to the applicable legal conditions. Notice obligations remain a separate issue.

What happens if an employer does not pay gratuity after termination?

An employee can raise the unpaid entitlement through the applicable UAE labour-dispute process. The Ministry may attempt an amicable settlement before the dispute proceeds further under the applicable procedure.

Conclusion

UAE labour law termination benefits are not limited to end-of-service gratuity. Depending on the circumstances, an employee’s final settlement may include gratuity, unpaid salary, accrued annual leave, notice-period compensation and other contractual or statutory entitlements.

For eligible full-time foreign employees, gratuity is calculated using the last basic wage, with 21 days for each year during the first five years and 30 days for each additional year, subject to the statutory eligibility requirements and maximum cap. Employers must generally settle the employee’s wages and other applicable end-of-contract entitlements within 14 days of the contract ending.

Because the amount due can depend on the employee’s service period, basic salary, notice arrangements, leave balance and reason for termination, the final settlement should be reviewed as a complete calculation rather than treating gratuity as the only termination benefit.

Overtime is generally limited to two additional hours per day and is paid using the employee’s basic wage, with at least a 25% increase for ordinary overtime and at least a 50% increase for qualifying overtime worked between 10 PM and 4 AM. The law also sets a 144-hour limit over three weeks, subject to the applicable exceptions and conditions.

This guide explains UAE working-hour rules, mandatory breaks, Ramadan hours, overtime limits, overtime calculation, rest-day work and the legal framework governing private-sector employees.

UAE Labour Law Working Hours

UAE private-sector working hours are primarily governed by Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 on the Regulation of Labour Relations, together with its Executive Regulations under Cabinet Resolution No. 1 of 2022.

Article 17 establishes the normal working-hours framework, while Articles 18 and 19 address consecutive working hours and overtime. The Executive Regulations provide additional rules and exceptions.

These rules apply to employees within the federal private-sector labour-law framework. Certain worker categories, sectors and employment arrangements may be subject to different rules or exceptions.

What Are the Normal Working Hours in the UAE?

The normal working hours are 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week for most private-sector employees.

The law allows working hours to be increased or reduced for certain economic sectors or categories of workers under the Executive Regulations.

For employees working under a part-time arrangement, the agreed contractual hours are also relevant. An employer generally cannot require a part-time worker to exceed the agreed hours unless the worker provides the required written consent.

Are Commuting Hours Counted as Working Hours?

Ordinary commuting time between an employee’s home and workplace is generally not included in working hours.

However, the Executive Regulations identify specific circumstances in which time spent travelling in employer-provided transportation can count, including certain situations involving severe weather, traffic accidents or sudden vehicle breakdowns. The parties may also expressly agree in the employment contract that certain travel time counts as working time.

Working Hours and Mandatory Breaks

Maximum Consecutive Working Hours

An employee may not work for more than five consecutive hours without one or more breaks totaling at least one hour.

These breaks are not included when calculating working hours.

For example, if an employee’s schedule runs from 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM and includes a one-hour unpaid break, the employee has spent nine hours at the workplace but has worked eight hours.

The exact arrangement of breaks may vary depending on the nature of the work, shift arrangements and applicable employment rules.

Lunch Breaks Timings

Mandatory rest, food or prayer breaks that fall outside the working hours are not counted as working hours. The total break period must be at least one hour where an employee works five consecutive hours.

This means an employee should distinguish between:

• Time actually spent working
• A scheduled unpaid break
• Other periods that may legally be treated as working time

The employment contract, workplace regulations and applicable working arrangement can also affect how the daily schedule is organised.

UAE Working Hours During Ramadan

Normal working hours are reduced by two hours per day during Ramadan for employees covered by the private-sector Labour Law.

For an employee whose normal schedule is 8 working hours per day, the Ramadan schedule is generally reduced to 6 working hours per day.

The Ramadan reduction applies to normal working hours. If an employee works beyond the applicable reduced schedule, the additional time may qualify as overtime and should be assessed under the overtime rules.

The two-hour reduction is part of the private-sector working-hours framework, but the exact application can depend on the employee’s category, sector, shift system and applicable regulations.

Certain categories are exempt from maximum working-hour provisions under the Executive Regulations, including specified senior, supervisory and maritime roles.

Overtime Under UAE Labour Law

Overtime is generally work performed beyond the employee’s normal working hours when the circumstances of the work require additional hours.

Article 19 permits employers to require additional working hours subject to the statutory limits and conditions.

For most employees, overtime should not exceed two hours per day, except where the applicable legal conditions permit additional hours, such as circumstances involving the prevention or mitigation of a serious loss or accident.

The law also provides that total working hours must not exceed 144 hours in every three weeks, subject to the applicable legal framework and exceptions.

Overtime Salary Calculations

UAE statutory overtime is calculated using the employee’s basic wage rather than the employee’s full salary package. Article 19 specifically refers to remuneration for normal working hours calculated according to the basic wage.

This distinction is important when an employment package contains:

• Basic salary
• Housing allowance
• Transport allowance
• Other allowances or benefits

For example, if an employee receives AED 10,000 in total but their contractual basic salary is AED 6,000, the statutory overtime calculation starts from the AED 6,000 basic salary rather than automatically using the AED 10,000 total package.

How to Calculate Overtime in the UAE

The overtime calculation can be broken down into three steps:

Step 1: Calculate the Basic Hourly Wage

For the standard 8-hour working day, the commonly used calculation is:

Basic hourly wage = Monthly basic salary ÷ 30 ÷ 8

This can also be expressed as:

Basic hourly wage = Monthly basic salary ÷ 240

The calculation uses the basic salary, not the total salary package.

Step 2: Apply the Overtime Rate

The applicable multiplier depends on when the overtime is worked.

*The 50% night-work increase under Article 19(3) does not apply to workers working on shifts.

Step 3: Multiply by the Number of Overtime Hours

The general formulas are:

Ordinary overtime = Basic hourly wage × 1.25 × overtime hours

Qualifying night overtime = Basic hourly wage × 1.50 × overtime hours

UAE Overtime Calculation Example

Suppose an employee has a basic monthly salary of AED 6,000 and works 2 hours of ordinary overtime.

Step 1: Find the daily basic wage

AED 6,000 ÷ 30 = AED 200 per day

Step 2: Find the basic hourly wage

AED 200 ÷ 8 = AED 25 per hour

Step 3: Add the 25% overtime premium

AED 25 × 1.25 = AED 31.25 per overtime hour

Step 4: Calculate the two overtime hours

AED 31.25 × 2 = AED 62.50

Therefore, 2 hours of ordinary overtime would produce AED 62.50 in overtime pay on a basic salary of AED 6,000, using this standard calculation method.

Night Overtime Example

If the same employee works 2 qualifying overtime hours between 10 PM and 4 AM:

AED 25 × 1.50 = AED 37.50 per hour

AED 37.50 × 2 = AED 75

Therefore, 2 qualifying night-overtime hours would produce AED 75 in overtime pay.

The 50% night premium does not apply to workers who work on shifts under Article 19(3).

Working on Weekly Rest Days

The weekly rest day is treated separately from ordinary overtime.

If work circumstances require an employee to work on the rest day specified in the employment contract or work regulations, the employee should receive either:

• A substitute rest day; or
• Payment for that day’s work at the normal wage plus an increase of at least 50% of the basic wage.

The employee may not generally be required to work more than two consecutive rest days, except for day workers, under Article 19.

This means rest-day work should not simply be treated as ordinary weekday overtime without checking the applicable compensation rule.

Working on Public Holidays

Public-holiday work is governed by separate provisions from ordinary daily overtime.

Where an employee is required to work during an official holiday, compensation is governed by the Labour Law and its applicable regulations. Depending on the circumstances, this can involve a substitute day off and/or additional remuneration.

Because public-holiday compensation can differ from ordinary overtime, employees and employers should check the specific statutory provision applicable to the holiday and employment arrangement rather than automatically applying the 25% overtime rate.

Are There Exceptions to UAE Working-Hour Rules?

Not every employee is necessarily subject to the same maximum working-hour provisions.

The Executive Regulations identify categories that are exempt from provisions relating to maximum working hours, including:

• Chairpersons and members of boards of directors
• Certain employees in supervisory positions who have employer-like powers
• Crews of maritime vessels and workers at sea who have special working conditions
• Certain preparatory or complementary work that necessarily takes place outside ordinary working hours

The Executive Regulations contain the applicable conditions and categories, so job title alone should not be assumed to create an exemption.

What If an Employer Does Not Pay Overtime?

An employee who believes that overtime has not been properly paid should first keep evidence showing:

• Employment contract
• Basic salary
• Working schedule
• Attendance records
• Timesheets
• Overtime approvals or instructions
• Emails or messages assigning additional work
• Payslips
• Bank statements
• Any records showing the actual hours worked

The exact evidence required depends on the circumstances of the dispute.

If an employer fails to comply with applicable employment obligations, the employee may have access to the UAE labour-dispute process through the Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratisation (MOHRE), subject to the applicable procedures and jurisdiction.

How Al Ramsy Advocates Can Help With Working-Hour and Overtime Disputes

Working-hour disputes can involve more than a simple overtime calculation. Questions may arise about the employee’s basic salary, contractual working hours, overtime records, shift arrangements, rest days, exemptions or whether additional hours were actually worked.

Employment Lawyers advise employers and employees on UAE employment law, contracts, workplace disputes and legal proceedings. The firm’s employment practice covers issues including working conditions, compensation, unpaid wages, termination and labour disputes.

Legal support may include:

• Reviewing the employment contract and working-hours provisions
• Assessing overtime records and salary calculations
• Reviewing whether the basic wage was correctly used for overtime
• Assessing disputes concerning unpaid overtime
• Reviewing shift and rest-day arrangements
• Advising employers on labour-law compliance
• Assisting with MOHRE employment disputes
• Representing employers or employees in applicable legal proceedings

Where an overtime dispute becomes a formal employment dispute, Al Ramsy’s Employment Litigation Lawyers can assist with dispute assessment, MOHRE procedures, court proceedings, appeals and enforcement.

UAE Employment Litigation Lawyers for Employers and Employees

Al Ramsy Advocates provides employment litigation and legal representation in termination disputes, unpaid wages, employment contracts, workplace disputes, and other labour matters before the courts across Dubai and the UAE.

Explore Our Employment Litigation Services

Frequently Asked Questions About UAE Labour Law Working Hours

What are the legal working hours in the UAE?

For most private-sector employees, normal working hours are 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week. Working hours are reduced by two hours per day during Ramadan, subject to the applicable legal framework and exceptions.

Is an employee entitled to a break after 5 hours of work?

Yes. An employee cannot generally work for more than five consecutive hours without one or more breaks totalling at least one hour. These breaks are not counted as working hours.

Can an employer require employees to work overtime every day?

Overtime is generally limited to two additional hours per day, subject to exceptions and conditions under the Labour Law and Executive Regulations. Total working hours are also subject to the applicable three-week limit.

How much should I be paid for 1 hour of overtime in the UAE?

Ordinary overtime must generally be paid at the employee’s basic hourly wage plus at least 25%. Qualifying overtime worked between 10 PM and 4 AM is generally paid at the basic hourly wage plus at least 50%, except where the statutory night-work rule does not apply to shift workers.

Is overtime calculated on basic salary or total salary in the UAE?

Statutory overtime is calculated using the employee’s basic wage, rather than the full salary package including allowances. The basic hourly wage is then used to calculate the applicable overtime premium.

Does UAE Labour Law reduce working hours during Ramadan?

Yes. Normal working hours are reduced by two hours per day during Ramadan for employees covered by the private-sector Labour Law. The reduction applies to normal working hours and should be distinguished from overtime.

What happens if an employee works on their weekly rest day?

An employee required to work on their contractual weekly rest day should generally receive either a substitute rest day or payment at the normal wage plus an increase of at least 50% of the basic wage, subject to the applicable legal conditions.

Can an employer make an employee work more than 8 hours a day?

An employee may be required to work additional hours where the legal conditions for overtime are met. For most employees, overtime generally cannot exceed two additional hours per day, although the law and Executive Regulations provide exceptions.

Conclusion

UAE Labour Law establishes a clear framework for working hours, mandatory breaks and overtime in the private sector. For most employees, the normal working schedule is 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week, with a two-hour daily reduction during Ramadan and mandatory breaks after periods of consecutive work.

Overtime is calculated from the employee’s basic wage rather than automatically from the full salary package. Ordinary overtime attracts at least a 25% increase, while qualifying overtime between 10 PM and 4 AM attracts at least a 50% increase, subject to the statutory conditions and the exclusion for shift workers.

Because working-hour rules can vary depending on the employee’s role, shift arrangement, contract and applicable exemptions, employers and employees should assess the specific employment arrangement before calculating overtime or bringing a wage dispute.

Domestic workers are entitled to important protections, including at least 30 days of paid annual leave, one paid weekly rest day, 12 hours of daily rest including at least 8 consecutive hours, and up to 30 days of sick leave per contractual year subject to the legal conditions.

This guide explains the main rights and obligations under UAE domestic-worker law and what workers and employers should know when an employment relationship ends or a dispute arises.

UAE Labour Law for Domestic Workers

Which Law Applies?

Domestic workers are regulated under a separate legal framework from employees working in the UAE private sector.

The main legislation is Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2022 Concerning Domestic Workers, together with its implementing regulations under Cabinet Resolution No. 106 of 2022. The UAE Government confirms that Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021, which regulates labour relations in the private sector, does not apply to domestic workers.

This distinction matters because rights such as working hours, leave, termination and end-of-service benefits must be assessed under the domestic-worker framework rather than automatically applying rules designed for private-sector employees.

UAE Labour & Employment Lawyers for Employers and Employees

Al Ramsy Advocates provides labour and employment legal support for employment contracts, workplace disputes, termination, wages, employee rights, employer obligations, and other employment matters across Dubai and the UAE.

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Who Is Considered a Domestic Worker?

The UAE domestic-worker framework covers a defined range of occupations performed in or for a household.

The UAE Government identifies 19 occupations, including:

• Housemaid
• Sailor
• Guard
• Shepherd
• Jockey
• Tamer
• Falcon caretaker
• Worker
• Housekeeper
• Cook
• Nanny or babysitter
• Farm worker or grower
• Gardener
• Personal trainer or coach
• Private tutor
• Home nurse
• Personal assistant
• Private agricultural engineer
• Personal or family driver

Whether a particular worker falls under the domestic-worker law depends on the nature of the work and the applicable legal classification.

Employment Contract

Domestic employment should be based on an employment agreement setting out the terms of the relationship, including the work to be performed and the agreed wage.

The employer must comply with the contractual obligations as well as the requirements imposed by the domestic-worker legislation. Recruitment offices must also use employment agreements in the forms approved through the Ministry’s system.

A written employment contract is reviewed as it is particularly important if a disagreement later arises over salary, duties, leave, termination or other employment rights.

Domestic Worker Rights and Entitlements

Working Hours and Rest Periods

The domestic-worker law regulates working and rest periods differently from the general private-sector Labour Law.

A domestic worker must receive at least 12 hours of daily rest, including at least 8 consecutive hours of rest. The implementing framework also regulates working and rest periods.

The 12-hour figure should therefore not be presented simply as a maximum 12-hour working day. It refers to the required period of daily rest.

Weekly Rest Day

A domestic worker is entitled to one paid day of rest each week.

If the worker is required to work on the weekly rest day, the law provides for an alternative day of rest or payment equivalent to a day’s wage, subject to the applicable rules.

Salary and Wage Protection

The employer must pay the domestic worker the wage agreed under the employment contract and in accordance with the applicable legal requirements.

According to the UAE Government, wages must be paid within 10 days from the due date.

Keeping records of salary payments is important for both sides. Where wages are disputed, the employment agreement and payment records may help establish what was agreed and what has been paid.

Annual Leave

Domestic workers are entitled to at least 30 days of paid annual leave for each year of service.

Where the worker has completed more than six months but less than one year of service, the entitlement is two days of leave for each month of service. The law also regulates situations where annual leave is interrupted or the worker is required to work during leave.

If a domestic worker wants to spend annual leave in their home country, the employer must bear the cost of a return ticket once every two years, subject to the conditions established by the law.

Sick Leave

A domestic worker may be entitled to up to 30 days of sick leave during each contractual year, provided the need for the leave is established by a medical report issued by a health authority approved by the UAE.

The law provides:

The statutory entitlement is subject to the conditions in the domestic-worker law. For example, where the illness resulted from the worker’s misconduct, the law excludes paid or half-paid sick leave.

This should not be confused with the sick-leave entitlement under the general private-sector Labour Law, which follows a different framework.

End-of-Service Gratuity

End-of-service gratuity for domestic workers requires particular care because the domestic-worker law doesn’t itself state the commonly cited “14 days’ basic salary per year” formula.

Article 22 of Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2022 provides that the Council of Ministers may approve the systems and mechanisms for calculating and paying domestic workers’ end-of-service gratuity.

Therefore, employers and workers should not automatically apply a gratuity formula from another UAE employment regime to a domestic-worker relationship. Any calculation should be checked against the rules applicable at the time of the claim.

Passport and Personal Documents

Domestic workers retain possession of their personal identification documents, including passports and IDs.

The UAE Government specifically lists possession of personal identification documents among domestic workers’ entitlements.

Accommodation, Food and Healthcare

For full-time domestic workers, the law places several obligations on the employer.

These include:

• Providing suitable accommodation
• Providing meals and appropriate clothing where required for full-time workers, unless otherwise agreed
• Paying the agreed wage
• Providing what the worker needs to perform the agreed work
• Bearing medical treatment costs in accordance with the applicable health system or providing health insurance where required by law

The employer must also comply with the other obligations imposed by the employment agreement and domestic-worker legislation.

Protection from Abuse and Exploitation

The domestic-worker framework establishes employment obligations intended to protect workers and regulate recruitment and employment conditions.

Recruitment offices must provide workers with information about the nature of the work and wage before entry into the UAE, use licensed arrangements and inform workers about their rights and the appropriate channels where their rights or freedom are violated.

Employers and recruitment offices must comply with the legal requirements governing the treatment, employment and protection of domestic workers.

Ending Domestic Worker Employment

Termination

Termination of a domestic-worker employment relationship is governed by the domestic-worker law and the terms of the employment agreement.

The legal consequences can depend on who terminates the relationship, the reason for termination, whether the agreement has expired, and whether either party has breached their obligations.

Employment termination can also affect outstanding wages, unused leave, return travel and other amounts owed to the worker. The circumstances should therefore be reviewed before the employment relationship is ended.

Changing Employers

Changing employers is subject to the conditions established by the domestic-worker legislation and its implementing regulations.

The rules distinguish between different circumstances surrounding the end of employment and may affect who is responsible for repatriation costs. For example, the law provides that an employer is not responsible for returning a worker to their home country where the worker joins another job in accordance with the applicable legal provisions.

Because changing employers can also involve work permits, recruitment arrangements and immigration requirements, the specific circumstances should be checked before making the change.

Repatriation

Repatriation obligations can arise when the domestic employment relationship ends.

The domestic-worker law addresses the employer’s responsibility for return travel in certain circumstances, while also providing exceptions where the worker moves into another lawful employment arrangement.

The exact responsibility can therefore depend on how and why the employment relationship ended.

Recruitment Agencies

Domestic-worker recruitment offices are regulated under the implementing framework.

Among other requirements, licensed offices must provide information about the work and wage, comply with approved employment arrangements, follow Ministry requirements and deal with recruitment agencies outside the UAE in accordance with the applicable controls. They must also comply with Ministry-approved service fees and other regulatory requirements.

Where a dispute involves a recruitment office, the Ministry has specific authority to examine disputes between employers and recruitment agencies.

Domestic Worker Disputes and Legal Protection

Dispute Resolution

Disputes between domestic workers and employers are initially handled through the Ministry’s dispute-resolution process.

If the parties cannot resolve the dispute amicably, the Ministry may refer the matter to the competent court together with a summary of the dispute, the parties’ arguments and its recommendation.

The UAE Government states that the Ministry attempts to resolve domestic-worker complaints amicably within two weeks. If settlement is unsuccessful, the matter is referred to the competent court.

Domestic-worker cases are also exempt from litigation fees at all stages and are subject to expedited handling under the applicable framework.

Evidence and Documentation

When an employment dispute arises, both parties should preserve documents and records that may establish the terms of the relationship and what occurred during employment.

Useful records may include:

• Employment agreement
• Salary and payment records
• Leave records
• Medical reports
• Work-permit or recruitment documents
• Written communications about employment conditions
• Records relating to termination
• Relevant Ministry or recruitment-office correspondence

The appropriate evidence depends on the nature of the dispute.

Filing a Complaint

Either the domestic worker or employer may have access to the Ministry’s dispute-resolution process where a dispute falls within the domestic-worker framework.

The UAE Government states that a labour complaint may be submitted to the Ministry, which first attempts an amicable settlement before referring an unresolved matter to court.

There is also an important limitation period to keep in mind: according to the UAE Government’s current guidance, claims concerning rights arising under the domestic-worker law are inadmissible after three months from the date of termination of employment.

Because deadlines and procedural requirements can affect a claim, a party involved in a dispute should act promptly rather than waiting until the deadline approaches.

5. Domestic Workers vs Private-Sector Employees

Domestic workers and private-sector employees in the UAE are governed by different federal employment frameworks.

The distinction is important because similar terms, such as annual leave or sick leave, do not necessarily mean that the same legal rules apply. The UAE Government expressly excludes domestic workers from the scope of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 and identifies Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2022 as the specific framework for domestic workers.

How Al Ramsy Advocates Can Help With Domestic Worker Disputes

Domestic-worker disputes can involve more than a disagreement over wages. Issues may involve termination, unpaid amounts, leave entitlements, contractual obligations, recruitment arrangements or disputes about the circumstances in which employment ended.

Al Ramsy Advocates & Legal Consultants can assist clients in assessing their legal position and understanding the UAE legal framework applicable to their dispute.

Legal support may include:

• Reviewing the domestic worker’s employment agreement and relevant documents
• Assessing outstanding wages, leave or other employment-related claims
• Advising on termination and the legal consequences of ending employment
• Reviewing disputes involving employers, workers or recruitment arrangements
• Assisting with the Ministry complaint and settlement process
• Advising on evidence and documentation
• Representing clients where a dispute proceeds to court
• Providing legal guidance on the appropriate steps for resolving the dispute

For disputes that cannot be resolved through the applicable administrative process, legal representation may help ensure that the relevant documents, claims and arguments are properly presented before the competent court.

Al Ramsy Advocates provides legal services in the UAE and has experience advising clients on employment-related disputes and litigation matters.

Contact Al Ramsy Advocates for Legal Assistance in the UAE

Contact Al Ramsy Advocates for legal advice and representation in litigation, arbitration, corporate, commercial, labour, employment, and other legal matters across Dubai and the UAE.

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Frequently Asked Questions

What law applies to domestic workers in the UAE?

Domestic workers are primarily governed by Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2022 on Domestic Workers and its implementing regulations. The general private-sector Labour Law, Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021, does not apply to domestic workers.

How many hours can a domestic worker work in the UAE?

The domestic-worker framework requires at least 12 hours of daily rest, including at least 8 consecutive hours. Working and rest periods are regulated under the domestic-worker framework and its implementing rules.

How many days of annual leave does a domestic worker get in the UAE?

A domestic worker is entitled to at least 30 days of paid annual leave for each year of service. Workers with more than six months but less than one year of service are entitled to two days of leave for each month of service.

How much sick leave is a domestic worker entitled to?

A domestic worker may receive up to 30 days of sick leave per contractual year where the need is supported by the required medical report. The first 15 days are paid and the following 15 days are half-paid, subject to the conditions of the law.

Can an employer keep a domestic worker’s passport?

The UAE Government identifies possession of personal identification documents, including passports and IDs, as a domestic worker entitlement.

Where can a domestic worker file a labour complaint?

A domestic worker may submit a labour complaint to the Ministry. The Ministry first attempts an amicable settlement and may refer an unresolved dispute to the competent court.

Is there a deadline for domestic-worker claims in the UAE?

The UAE Government currently states that claims concerning rights arising under the domestic-worker law are inadmissible after three months from the date of termination of employment.

Conclusion

The UAE provides domestic workers with a dedicated legal framework that regulates their employment relationship and protects their rights. Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2022 covers important areas including wages, working and rest periods, annual and sick leave, accommodation, healthcare, termination and dispute resolution.

Because domestic workers are governed by a separate law from the general private-sector Labour Law, employers and workers should check the specific rules that apply to domestic employment rather than relying on general UAE labour-law provisions. The distinction is particularly important when dealing with termination, outstanding wages, leave entitlements or end-of-service benefits.

Where a dispute arises, understanding the applicable law and preserving the employment contract and supporting records can help both parties protect their legal position. Professional legal advice can also help assess the circumstances, resolve disputes where possible and provide representation if formal proceedings become necessary.

When comparing litigation law firms in Dubai or elsewhere in the UAE, look beyond rankings and consider the firm’s experience with your specific dispute, court, industry, language requirements, strategy, communication, and expected legal costs.

What Is a Litigation Law Firm?

A litigation law firm represents individuals, businesses and other parties involved in legal disputes. Its work can begin before a case is filed and continue through negotiations, court proceedings, appeals and judgment enforcement.

Depending on the firm’s practice, litigation lawyers may handle:

• Civil disputes
• Corporate and commercial disputes
• Contract disputes
• Debt recovery
• Construction and real estate disputes
• Employment disputes
• Shareholder and partnership disputes
• Intellectual property disputes
• Insurance and financial disputes
• Cross-border disputes
• Court appeals and enforcement proceedings

In the UAE, litigation may involve onshore UAE courts as well as specialized jurisdictions such as the DIFC Courts or ADGM Courts. The appropriate forum depends on the facts of the dispute, jurisdictional rules, contractual arrangements and other legal considerations.

UAE Litigation Lawyers for Individuals and Businesses

Al Ramsy Advocates provides litigation and legal representation in civil, commercial, corporate, employment, family, and other disputes before the courts across Dubai and the UAE.

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Best Litigation Law Firms in the UAE

There is no single official list that identifies the best litigation law firm in the UAE. Legal directories such as Legal 500 and Chambers & Partners assess firms according to their own methodologies, practice areas and jurisdictions, while the right firm for a particular dispute depends on factors such as the type of case, relevant court, legal experience and the lawyers handling the matter.

If you are researching litigation firms in the UAE, the following firms are among those worth considering based on their published litigation capabilities and recognition in established legal directories.

1. Al Ramsy Advocates

Al Ramsy Advocates is a UAE law firm providing litigation and legal representation for individuals, businesses and corporations. Its litigation practice covers civil, commercial, corporate, employment, family, intellectual property and debt recovery disputes, with support extending from case assessment and settlement negotiations through court proceedings, appeals and judgment enforcement. The firm states that it has more than 25 years of UAE legal experience and a team of 40+ professional attorneys.

2. Al Tamimi & Company

Al Tamimi & Company is a large regional law firm with a broad dispute-resolution practice covering litigation and other contentious matters. Its UAE litigation practice handles a range of commercial and civil disputes, with lawyers advising clients across multiple industries and jurisdictions. Legal 500 currently places the firm in Tier 1 for Dispute Resolution: Local Litigation in the UAE.

3. Hadef & Partners

Hadef & Partners is a UAE law firm with experience in dispute resolution and litigation across different areas of commercial and civil law. Its practice includes representation in UAE courts as well as matters involving specialist jurisdictions such as the DIFC and ADGM. Legal 500 currently places Hadef & Partners in Tier 1 for Dispute Resolution: Local Litigation in the UAE.

4. OGH Legal

OGH Legal is a disputes-focused UAE law firm handling litigation and other contentious matters for businesses and clients involved in complex disputes. Its practice covers commercial and civil litigation and related dispute-resolution work. Legal 500 currently places OGH Legal in Tier 1 for Dispute Resolution: Local Litigation in the UAE, recognizing its lawyer and team quality and sector knowledge.

5. BSA Law

BSA Law is a UAE-based law firm with a broad practice covering dispute resolution, commercial matters and other areas of business law. Its litigation practice advises and represents clients in disputes involving businesses, contracts and commercial relationships. Legal 500 currently places BSA Law in Tier 2 for Dispute Resolution: Local Litigation in the UAE.

6. Galadari Advocates & Legal Consultants

Galadari Advocates & Legal Consultants is a UAE law firm providing legal advice and representation across litigation and other practice areas. Its dispute-resolution work covers matters before UAE courts and includes representation in commercial and civil disputes. Legal 500 currently places Galadari Advocates & Legal Consultants in Tier 2 for Dispute Resolution: Local Litigation in the UAE.

7. Habib Al Mulla & Partners

Habib Al Mulla & Partners is a UAE law firm with a longstanding practice in dispute resolution and commercial law. Its lawyers advise and represent clients in complex commercial, corporate and financial disputes and related contentious matters. Legal 500 currently places Habib Al Mulla & Partners in Tier 2 for Dispute Resolution: Local Litigation in the UAE.

8. Horizons & Co Law Firm

Horizons & Co Law Firm is a UAE legal practice providing litigation, dispute resolution and broader legal services to individuals and businesses. Its practice covers UAE litigation and disputes across a range of commercial and civil matters. Legal 500 currently places Horizons & Co Law Firm in Tier 2 for Dispute Resolution: Local Litigation in the UAE.

The firms above should not be viewed as interchangeable. A firm’s directory ranking or market reputation does not by itself determine whether it is suitable for your particular dispute. When comparing litigation firms, consider the firm’s experience with your type of claim, the relevant court or jurisdiction, the specific lawyer handling your case, the firm’s approach to settlement and litigation, and its ability to assist with appeals and enforcement.

What Should You Look for in a Litigation Law Firm?

A firm’s ranking is only one factor. The more important question is whether the firm has the right experience and resources for your dispute.

1. Experience With Your Type of Dispute

A firm that handles commercial litigation may have different experience from one that focuses primarily on family, criminal or employment disputes.

Ask whether the firm regularly handles cases involving:

• Contract breaches
• Unpaid debts
• Shareholder disputes
• Construction claims
• Real estate disputes
• Employment claims
• Corporate conflicts
• Intellectual property
• Banking and financial disputes

Relevant experience with the type of dispute you are facing can be more useful than a general reputation for litigation.

2. Experience With the Relevant Court

The UAE has different court systems and jurisdictions. Your dispute may involve:

• Dubai Courts
• Abu Dhabi Courts
• Federal Courts
• DIFC Courts
• ADGM Courts
• Other local judicial authorities

The appropriate court depends on the circumstances of the case. A lawyer should assess jurisdiction before recommending a particular litigation route.

3. Experience at Different Stages of Litigation

A litigation firm should be able to explain what happens after the initial consultation.

Depending on the case, legal support may include:

1. Case assessment
2. Evidence and document review
3. Pre-litigation negotiations
4. Legal notices
5. Statement of claim or defence preparation
6. Case filing
7. Court hearings and pleadings
8. Expert proceedings where applicable
9. Judgment
10. Appeal or cassation where available
11. Judgment enforcement

A strong litigation strategy considers the dispute from the initial assessment through potential enforcement rather than treating the court filing as the end goal.

4. The Lawyer Handling Your Case

The firm name alone does not tell you who will actually manage your matter.

Before instructing a firm, ask:

• Who will be responsible for the case?
• Who will attend hearings?
• Will a partner or senior lawyer supervise the matter?
• Does the lawyer have experience with similar disputes?
• Who will communicate with you?
• What languages can the legal team work in?

5. Understanding of UAE Procedure

Litigation involves more than arguing the legal merits of a claim. Procedural requirements, jurisdiction, evidence, notification, filing requirements and deadlines can all affect how a case proceeds.

The UAE’s Civil Procedure Code is established under Federal Decree-Law No. 42 of 2022.

For legal representation, Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2022 regulating the legal profession provides the framework governing lawyers and their professional activities. Article 6 includes appearing and representing parties before courts and other specified authorities, subject to the requirements of the law.

Litigation Legal Framework in the UAE

Several federal laws may be relevant to the litigation law depending on the dispute.

The applicable legislation depends on the nature of the dispute and the relevant jurisdiction. The UAE’s official legislation platform identifies Federal Decree-Law No. 42 of 2022 as the current Civil Procedure Code and Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021 as the Cybercrimes Law.

What Types of Cases Do Litigation Law Firms Handle?

The right firm depends on the legal and commercial characteristics of the dispute, not simply the category name.

What to Consider When Choosing a Litigation Law Firm

Before hiring a litigation lawyer, ask questions that help you understand both the legal strategy and the practical process.

About Your Case

• Have you handled disputes similar to mine?
• Which court or jurisdiction is likely to have authority?
• What are the main legal and procedural risks?
• What evidence will be important?
• Is settlement worth considering before filing?

About the Legal Team

• Who will handle my case?
• Who will represent me at hearings?
• How often will I receive updates?
• Who will be my main point of contact?

About Costs

• How are your legal fees calculated?
• What work is included in the proposed fee?
• Are court fees or expert fees separate?
• Could additional fees arise during an appeal or enforcement?

A reputable litigation consultation should help you understand your legal position, available options, likely stages of the dispute and the costs that may arise before you decide how to proceed.

When Should You Hire a Litigation Lawyer?

You do not necessarily need to wait until a lawsuit has already been filed.

Consider obtaining legal advice when:

• You receive a legal notice.
• A person or company threatens legal action against you.
• A contractual dispute is escalating.
• You are owed a significant debt.
• Your business is facing a shareholder or partner dispute.
• You are considering filing a lawsuit.
• You have been served with court documents.
• You are considering an appeal.
• You have obtained a judgment that needs enforcement.

Early legal advice can help you understand your options before you take a step that could affect your legal position or the way the dispute is handled.

Al Ramsy Advocates: Experience Across UAE Litigation Matters

When choosing a litigation law firm, the most important consideration is whether the firm can handle the full scope of your dispute, from the initial legal assessment through court proceedings, appeals and enforcement. Al Ramsy Advocates provides litigation representation across the UAE for individuals, businesses, shareholders, investors and corporations, covering a broad range of civil and commercial disputes.

With more than 25 years of UAE legal experience and a team of 40+ professional attorneys, Al Ramsy Advocates combines case-specific legal strategy with representation throughout the different stages of litigation.

Comprehensive Litigation Support From Assessment to Enforcement

Al Ramsy’s litigation support is designed to cover the dispute from its earliest stage rather than focusing only on court appearances.

Case Assessment and Legal Strategy
The legal team reviews the facts, contracts, correspondence, evidence and other relevant documents to understand the dispute, identify potential legal issues and determine the appropriate course of action. Where appropriate, the firm can also assess whether negotiation or settlement should be pursued before litigation.

Pleadings and Court Representation
When court proceedings are required, Al Ramsy assists with preparing the necessary legal pleadings and represents clients throughout the litigation process. Its practice covers civil, commercial, corporate, employment, family, intellectual property and debt recovery disputes.

Appeals and Continued Representation
A dispute does not necessarily end with the first judgment. Where an appeal is available and appropriate, the firm can advise and represent clients through the applicable appellate proceedings.

Judgment Enforcement
After obtaining an enforceable judgment, Al Ramsy can assist with the next stage of the matter by advising on and pursuing applicable enforcement procedures.

Litigation Experience Across Different Disputes

Al Ramsy’s broad litigation practice allows the firm to support different types of clients and legal disputes, including individuals facing personal claims, businesses involved in commercial disagreements, shareholders dealing with corporate conflicts and companies pursuing debt or contractual claims.

Its litigation services cover matters involving:

• Civil and commercial disputes
• Contract and breach-of-contract claims
• Corporate and shareholder disputes
• Employment disputes
• Property and related disputes
• Construction disputes
• Intellectual property matters
• Debt recovery
• Family disputes
• Appeals and judgment enforcement

This broadness can be particularly important when a dispute involves multiple legal issues or develops beyond its initial stage, requiring the same legal team to reassess the strategy as the proceedings progress.

UAE Litigation Lawyers for Individuals and Businesses

Al Ramsy Advocates provides litigation and legal representation in civil, commercial, corporate, employment, family, and other disputes before the courts across Dubai and the UAE.

Explore Our Litigation Services

Why Clients Consider Al Ramsy for UAE Litigation

• 25+ years of UAE legal experience
• 40+ professional attorneys
• Representation for individuals, businesses, shareholders, investors and corporations
• Experience across civil, commercial, corporate, employment, family, IP and debt disputes
• Case-specific legal strategies based on the facts, evidence and applicable legal framework

Ultimately, choosing a litigation firm should come down to whether its experience, legal team, dispute coverage and ability to handle the matter from beginning to end match your needs. For clients looking for a UAE litigation firm capable of supporting individuals and businesses across a broad range of disputes and litigation stages, Al Ramsy Advocates offers a comprehensive legal service.

If you are dealing with a dispute or considering legal action, explore Al Ramsy Advocates litigation legal services to learn more about the firm’s litigation practice and the types of matters it handles.

Litigation Timeline in the UAE

The duration of litigation in the UAE varies considerably depending on the dispute, the court involved and what happens during the proceedings. A relatively straightforward claim may follow a different timeline from a complex commercial dispute involving multiple parties, extensive evidence, expert proceedings or appeals.

Several factors can influence how quickly a case progresses:

• Court and jurisdiction: Different courts and jurisdictions may follow different procedural requirements and schedules.
• Nature and complexity of the dispute: Complex commercial, corporate or construction claims generally require more extensive preparation and evidence.
• Service and notification: Proceedings may be affected by the time required to properly notify the parties involved.
• Evidence and documents: Large volumes of contracts, correspondence, financial records or other evidence can extend case preparation.
• Court-appointed experts: Where expert examination is required, the expert process can add additional stages to the proceedings.
• Hearings and pleadings: The number of submissions and hearings required depends on the issues in dispute and the parties’ arguments.
• Appeals: If a judgment is challenged, the dispute may continue through the applicable appeal process.
• Enforcement: Obtaining a judgment does not necessarily mean the matter is immediately resolved; enforcement may require separate procedural steps.

For this reason, a litigation lawyer should assess the specific facts, jurisdiction and procedural stage before giving a realistic estimate of how long a case may take.

Litigation Lawyer Fees in the UAE

The cost of litigation in the UAE varies significantly from one case to another. Rather than a standard fee, legal costs are usually shaped by the complexity of the dispute, the value of the claim, the amount of work required and the stages of proceedings involved.

Several factors can affect the overall cost:

• Case complexity: Disputes involving multiple legal issues, parties or jurisdictions generally require more extensive preparation.
• Claim value and nature: The financial value and subject matter of the dispute can influence the scope of legal work.
• Evidence and documents: Large volumes of contracts, correspondence, financial records or other evidence can require additional review and preparation.
• Court proceedings: The number of hearings and procedural stages can affect the legal work involved.
• Experts and specialists: Certain disputes may require court-appointed or privately instructed experts, adding to the overall expense.
• Appeals and enforcement: Legal costs may increase if the matter proceeds to appeal or requires separate judgment-enforcement proceedings.
• Court and administrative fees: These are separate from the lawyer’s professional fees and depend on the applicable court and proceedings.

Common Litigation Fee Structures

UAE law firms may use different fee arrangements depending on the nature of the matter. These can include:

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Which are the best litigation law firms in the UAE?

There is no single official list of the best litigation law firms in the UAE. Legal directories such as Legal 500 and Chambers & Partners rank firms by jurisdiction and practice area, so the firms recognized for local litigation may differ from those recognized for international litigation, arbitration or other disputes.

2. Which law firms are ranked for litigation in the UAE?

Legal 500 and Chambers & Partners publish UAE litigation and dispute-resolution rankings that include established local, regional and international firms. Rankings can change between editions, so check the current directory listing and the specific litigation category when comparing firms.

3. How do I choose a litigation law firm in Dubai?

Consider the firm’s experience with your type of dispute, its familiarity with the relevant court, the experience of the lawyer handling your matter, its approach to litigation and settlement, communication practices, and fee structure. A firm’s suitability depends on how closely its experience matches your specific legal dispute.

4. What is the difference between a litigation law firm and a general law firm?

A litigation practice focuses on resolving legal disputes through negotiation, court proceedings, appeals and, where necessary, enforcement. A full-service law firm may also provide non-contentious services such as corporate transactions, contracts, mergers and acquisitions, and legal advisory work.

5. How much does a litigation lawyer cost in the UAE?

Litigation lawyer fees vary depending on the complexity and value of the dispute, the number of hearings, evidence and expert requirements, and whether appeals or enforcement proceedings are required. There is no fixed standard fee for all litigation cases in the UAE, so clients should ask the firm for a clear explanation of its fees and scope of work.

6. How long does a litigation case take in the UAE?

The duration depends on the court, type and complexity of the dispute, number of parties, evidence, expert involvement, hearings, appeals and enforcement. A litigation lawyer can provide a more meaningful estimate after reviewing the facts and procedural requirements of the specific case.

7. What should I look for in a UAE litigation lawyer?

Look for relevant experience in your type of dispute, knowledge of the applicable UAE court system, a clear litigation strategy, experience with evidence and pleadings, and the ability to handle the matter through judgment and enforcement. The lawyer’s specific experience and the firm’s ability to handle your type of dispute can be more relevant than a general law-firm ranking.

Conclusion

Choosing a litigation law firm in the UAE requires more than looking for a firm with a strong name or directory ranking. The nature of your dispute, relevant court, lawyer’s experience, litigation strategy, communication and ability to handle the matter through judgment and enforcement should all be considered.

Legal directories such as Legal 500 and Chambers & Partners can provide a useful starting point for researching established firms, while a direct consultation can help you determine whether a particular legal team is appropriate for your case.

If you are facing a civil, commercial, corporate, debt, property or other dispute, Al Ramsy Advocates provides litigation representation and legal support across the UAE, from initial case assessment through court proceedings, appeals and enforcement.

If you are involved in a legal dispute, you may be wondering whether you need a litigator, what they actually do, and how they can help. A litigator’s work extends well beyond appearing in court: much of the work involves investigating the dispute, developing a legal strategy, preparing pleadings and evidence, negotiating with the opposing party, and managing the case through each procedural stage.

What Is a Litigator?

A litigator is a lawyer who specialises in dispute resolution and court proceedings. Litigators may act for either the person bringing a claim or the person defending against one.

Their work can begin before a case is filed and continue through hearings, judgment, appeal and enforcement. Depending on the dispute, a litigator may also work to resolve the matter through negotiation or settlement instead of taking it through a full trial.

In the UAE, licensed litigation lawyers may appear and represent clients before courts, Public Prosecution, investigation bodies and other judicial authorities within the scope permitted by UAE law. Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2022 regulating the legal profession expressly includes appearing on behalf of clients before courts and other judicial bodies, defending clients in legal proceedings, and carrying out related judicial work.

What Does a Litigator Do?

A litigator’s role is to build and manage a client’s legal case, protect the client’s position during proceedings, present the legal and evidentiary arguments, and pursue the appropriate resolution through settlement, judgment, appeal or enforcement.

The exact responsibilities vary depending on the type and complexity of the dispute, but commonly include the following.

Assessing the Case

A litigator first needs to understand what happened, identify the legal issues and determine whether the client has a viable claim or defence.

This can involve reviewing contracts, correspondence, financial records, notices, communications and other evidence. The lawyer may also identify potential risks, procedural issues, limitation periods and jurisdictional questions before recommending the appropriate course of action.

Developing a Litigation Strategy

Once the legal position is understood, the litigator develops a strategy around the client’s objectives.

This may involve deciding whether to:

• File a court case
• Defend an existing claim
• Send a legal notice
• Negotiate with the other party
• Pursue mediation or settlement
• Initiate arbitration where an arbitration agreement applies
• Seek interim or protective measures
• Appeal a judgment
• Begin enforcement proceedings

A litigation strategy is not necessarily about going to trial; a litigator may recommend settlement or another dispute-resolution route when it better protects the client’s legal and commercial interests.

Investigating the Dispute and Reviewing Evidence

Litigators examine the facts and evidence supporting a claim or defence. This can include contracts, invoices, payment records, emails, correspondence, expert reports, electronic records and witness information.

For complex disputes, the lawyer may also work with technical, financial or other experts to understand evidence relevant to the case.

Drafting Legal Pleadings

A significant part of litigation work involves preparing the documents submitted to the court.

Depending on the case, this may include:

• Statements of claim
• Defence memoranda
• Replies and rejoinders
• Legal submissions
• Requests and procedural applications
• Evidence schedules
• Appeal memoranda
• Other court documents

The pleadings should present the relevant facts, legal arguments, evidence and relief sought in accordance with the applicable procedural rules.

The UAE’s Federal Decree-Law No. 42 of 2022 on the Civil Procedure Code provides the principal federal procedural framework for civil litigation within its scope.

Representing Clients Before the Courts

Court representation is one of the most visible parts of a litigator’s role, but it is only one stage of the wider process.

A litigator may attend hearings, present legal arguments, respond to the opposing party’s submissions, address evidentiary issues and handle procedural matters on the client’s behalf.

The exact court and procedure depend on the dispute and jurisdiction. UAE litigation may involve federal courts, local courts or specialised judicial systems such as the DIFC Courts.

Negotiating Settlements

Litigators do not always wait for a court judgment.

Where appropriate, they may negotiate with the opposing party to resolve the dispute through a settlement. This can involve negotiating payment terms, contractual obligations, compensation, withdrawal of claims or other agreed remedies.

Settlement may take place before proceedings begin or while litigation is ongoing.

Handling Appeals

If a judgment is subject to appeal under the applicable procedural rules, a litigator can review the decision, identify potential grounds of appeal and prepare the necessary submissions.

Appeal work may require a different legal strategy from the first-instance proceedings because the lawyer must address the reasoning and findings contained in the judgment as well as the applicable grounds and procedural requirements.

Managing Judgment Enforcement

Winning a case does not necessarily mean that the client immediately receives the money or other relief awarded by the court.

Where a judgment is enforceable, a litigator may assist with initiating and managing enforcement proceedings and pursuing the measures available under UAE law.

UAE Litigation Lawyers for Individuals and Businesses

Al Ramsy Advocates provides litigation and legal representation in civil, commercial, corporate, employment, family, and other disputes before the courts across Dubai and the UAE.

Explore Our Litigation Services

What Does a Litigator Do Before a Case Goes to Court?

Much of a litigator’s work can happen before the first court hearing. Early legal assessment helps determine whether litigation is appropriate, what evidence is available, what risks exist, and whether the dispute can be resolved without a full court proceeding.

Pre-litigation work can include reviewing the dispute, issuing legal notices, negotiating with the opposing party, preparing evidence, assessing jurisdiction, and preparing the claim if court proceedings become necessary.

This stage can be particularly important in commercial disputes where the parties may be able to reach a settlement before substantial litigation costs are incurred.

What Does a Litigator Do During a Court Case?

Once proceedings begin, the litigator manages the client’s position throughout the case.

Difference Between a Lawyer and a Litigator

A litigator is a type of lawyer, but not every lawyer focuses on litigation.

A lawyer may specialise in areas such as contracts, corporate transactions, real estate, tax, intellectual property or legal advisory work without regularly representing clients in court. A litigator specifically focuses on disputes and the legal proceedings associated with resolving them.

For example, a contracts lawyer may primarily advise a business before a contract is signed, while a litigator may become involved when a contractual dispute arises and the parties need to negotiate, arbitrate or pursue court proceedings.

The main distinction is the nature of the work: a general lawyer may provide legal advice across a range of matters, while a litigator specialises in managing disputes and representing clients through litigation.

Types of Cases That a Litigator can Handle

Litigators can handle a wide range of disputes, including:

Civil Disputes

Civil litigation may involve compensation claims, contractual disputes, property matters, unpaid amounts and other private legal disputes.

Commercial and Business Disputes

Commercial litigation can involve companies, shareholders, business partners, suppliers, customers and other commercial relationships.

Common disputes include contractual breaches, payment disputes, shareholder conflicts, supply-chain disagreements and business-to-business claims.

Employment Disputes

Employment litigation may assist with disputes involving employment contracts, unpaid entitlements, termination, workplace claims and other employment-related legal issues, depending on the applicable dispute-resolution route.

Corporate and Shareholder Disputes

These can involve disagreements between shareholders, directors, business partners or companies concerning governance, ownership, contractual rights and corporate obligations.

Property and Construction Disputes

Litigation may also arise from property transactions, construction contracts, development projects, delays, defects, payment disputes and other real-estate or construction issues.

Debt Recovery

A litigator may assist creditors in pursuing unpaid debts through negotiation, court proceedings and, where appropriate, enforcement of an enforceable judgment.

When Should You Hire a Litigator?

You may benefit from speaking with a litigator when:

• You have received a legal notice or court claim
• Another party has breached a contract
• You are owed money and attempts to recover it have failed
• Your business is involved in a commercial dispute
• You are facing a claim from another individual or company
• You are considering filing a lawsuit
• You need to defend an existing case
• You are considering an appeal
• You have obtained a judgment and need to enforce it

Seeking legal advice before filing or responding to a claim can help you understand your position, preserve important evidence and avoid procedural decisions that could affect the case.

What Should You Give a Litigator at the First Consultation?

The more complete the initial information, the easier it is for the lawyer to assess the dispute.

Useful documents may include:

• Contracts and agreements
• Invoices and payment records
• Emails and messages
• Legal notices
• Court documents
• Previous settlement communications
• Company records
• Expert reports
• Photographs or other evidence
• A timeline of the events

You should also explain what outcome you are seeking, whether the other party has already taken legal action, and whether any deadlines or hearings are approaching.

How Al Ramsy Advocates Supports Clients in Litigation

Choosing a litigator is not only about having someone appear at a hearing. The lawyer should understand the dispute, identify the appropriate legal route, build a strategy around the evidence and continue managing the case through its later stages.

At Al Ramsy Advocates & Legal Consultants, the litigation team represents individuals, businesses and corporations in civil, commercial, corporate, employment, family, intellectual property and debt-recovery disputes. The firm’s litigation services cover case assessment, legal strategy, settlement negotiations, court representation, appeals and judgment enforcement.

Case Assessment and Strategy

The team reviews the dispute, relevant documents and available evidence to assess the client’s legal position and identify the appropriate litigation strategy.

Pleadings and Case Preparation

The lawyers prepare legal documents, organise supporting evidence and handle the procedural requirements involved in bringing or defending a claim.

Court Representation

The firm provides representation before the relevant UAE courts, including during hearings and other stages of litigation. Its published litigation services cover both pursuing claims and defending against them.

Appeals and Enforcement

Support can continue after judgment through appeal work and enforcement proceedings where appropriate.

With more than 25 years of experience and a litigation team handling disputes across the UAE, Al Ramsy Advocates provides legal support from the initial assessment of a dispute through court proceedings, appeals and judgment enforcement.

For help assessing your dispute or preparing for court proceedings, Al Ramsy litigation lawyers in the UAE can advise you on the appropriate legal route.

UAE Litigation Lawyers for Individuals and Businesses

Al Ramsy Advocates provides litigation and legal representation in civil, commercial, corporate, employment, contractual, and other disputes before the courts across Dubai and the UAE.

Explore Our Litigation Services

Frequently Asked Questions

What does a litigator do?

A litigator is a lawyer who handles legal disputes, from assessing a case and developing a strategy to preparing pleadings, representing clients in court, negotiating settlements, handling appeals and assisting with judgment enforcement. Litigators may work on disputes before a case is filed as well as throughout court proceedings.

What is the difference between a lawyer and a litigator?

A lawyer is a broad term for a legal professional who may work in areas such as litigation, contracts, corporate law, employment law or legal advisory. A litigator specifically focuses on resolving disputes through negotiation, court proceedings, appeals and related litigation processes.

What does a litigator do before going to court?

Before a case reaches court, a litigator reviews the facts and evidence, assesses the legal position, identifies potential risks, develops a strategy and may negotiate with the opposing party. Depending on the dispute, the lawyer may also prepare legal notices, settlement proposals or other documents before deciding whether court proceedings are necessary.

Does a litigator have to go to court?

Not necessarily. Litigators can work on disputes without a case reaching trial or a final court hearing. They may negotiate settlements, participate in pre-litigation discussions, prepare legal documents, advise on dispute strategy and work toward resolving the matter before formal proceedings.

What types of cases does a litigator handle?

Litigators can handle many types of disputes, including civil and commercial disputes, contract claims, debt recovery, employment disputes, construction and property disputes, corporate and shareholder disputes, intellectual property matters and other contested legal claims. The types of cases handled depend on the lawyer’s area of practice and experience.

When should you hire a litigator?

You may benefit from consulting a litigator when you are involved in a legal dispute, receive a legal notice, face a threatened lawsuit, need to recover a debt, have a contractual dispute or need to respond to a claim filed against you. Getting legal advice early can help you understand your options and prepare for potential court proceedings before the dispute becomes more difficult to manage.

What does a litigator do after a court judgment?

A litigator may advise on whether to appeal the judgment and represent the client in applicable appeal proceedings. Where a judgment is enforceable, the lawyer can also assist with enforcement procedures to help the successful party pursue the relief awarded by the court.

Conclusion

A litigator does much more than argue a case in court. Their role covers the wider dispute-resolution process, from understanding the client’s position and developing a strategy to preparing pleadings, negotiating settlement, representing the client in proceedings, handling appeals and pursuing enforcement.

If you are facing a dispute in the UAE, the appropriate legal strategy will depend on the facts, evidence, parties, jurisdiction and type of claim. Understanding these factors early can help you take the next step with a clearer view of your legal options.

If you are considering legal action in the UAE, understanding the correct filing route before submitting a claim can help avoid jurisdictional issues, incomplete documents, unnecessary costs, or procedural delays.

What Does Filing a Case in the UAE Mean?

Filing a case means formally submitting a legal claim, complaint, or case request to the competent judicial authority so that the dispute can proceed through the applicable legal process.

For civil and commercial disputes, this generally involves preparing a statement of claim, supporting evidence and documents, identifying the appropriate court, registering the case, and paying applicable fees.

The UAE has both federal and local judicial systems, so the correct filing authority depends on the dispute and where jurisdiction lies. Dubai, for example, has its own court system, while federal courts operate in certain emirates and matters.

How to File a Case in the UAE

Assess the Dispute and Confirm Jurisdiction

Before filing a case, determine the nature of the dispute, the legal right involved, the parties responsible, and the remedy you are seeking. You should also confirm which court has jurisdiction and whether the dispute is subject to a contractual jurisdiction clause, arbitration agreement, mediation requirement, or another pre-litigation procedure.

Prepare the Statement of Claim

The statement of claim sets out the facts of the dispute, the legal basis for the claim, the parties involved, and the relief requested from the court. Depending on the matter, the claim may seek payment of an outstanding amount, compensation, enforcement of a contractual obligation, termination of a contract, or another remedy available under UAE law.

Gather and Prepare Supporting Documents

The claim should be supported by relevant evidence such as contracts, invoices, payment records, correspondence, notices, expert reports, identification documents, and other records relevant to the dispute. Documents issued in languages other than Arabic may require certified Arabic translation before they can be relied upon in UAE court proceedings.

Submit the Case Through the Relevant Court System

Once the claim and supporting documents are ready, the case can be submitted through the electronic filing system or other registration channel used by the competent court. The Ministry of Justice provides an e-filing system for cases falling within the federal court system, while local judicial authorities such as Dubai Courts and the Abu Dhabi Judicial Department operate their own digital services.

Pay the Applicable Court Fees

After submitting the case, the applicable court or registration fees must be paid according to the rules of the relevant judicial authority. Fees are not uniform across the UAE and may depend on the court, type of case, value of the claim, and specific requests made in the proceedings.

Case Registration and Notification

Once the filing requirements and applicable fees have been completed, the case is registered and assigned a case number. The defendant or other parties are then notified according to the applicable procedural rules, and the case proceeds to the relevant preparation stage or hearing.

Pleadings, Evidence and Hearings

During the proceedings, the parties submit their legal arguments, evidence, responses, and other documents requested by the court. Depending on the dispute, the court may appoint an expert, request additional evidence, or require the parties to attend hearings or submit further pleadings.

Judgment, Appeal and Enforcement

After considering the parties’ submissions and evidence, the court issues its judgment. Depending on the type of case and applicable procedural rules, the judgment may be appealed before a higher court. Once a judgment becomes enforceable, the successful party may proceed with enforcement measures to obtain the relief or payment awarded by the court.

What Type of Case Can You File in the UAE?

Before starting a case, it is important to identify the nature of the dispute because different types of cases can follow different procedures.

The correct court is determined by the nature of the dispute, the parties involved, the location or jurisdictional connection, and any applicable jurisdiction or dispute-resolution agreement.

How to File a Civil Case in the UAE

For a civil or commercial dispute, the filing process generally follows these stages:

1. Assess the Dispute and Legal Claim

Before filing, determine:

• What legal right has been affected?
• Who is legally responsible?
• What remedy are you seeking?
• Which court has jurisdiction?
• Is there a contractual jurisdiction or arbitration clause?
• Is mediation or another preliminary procedure required?

This stage is particularly important where a dispute-resolution clause or mandatory pre-litigation procedure applies.

2. Prepare the Statement of Claim

The statement of claim should clearly set out the dispute, the relevant facts, the legal basis of the claim and the relief requested.

Depending on the case, the requested remedy could include:

• Payment of an outstanding amount
• Compensation
• Performance of a contractual obligation
• Termination or rescission of a contract
• Declaration of a legal right
• Other relief permitted under the applicable law

3. Prepare and Authenticate Supporting Documents

Supporting documents should be organised and submitted in the format required by the relevant court.

Where documents are issued in another language, an official Arabic translation may be required for proceedings before UAE onshore courts.

4. Submit the Case Through the Relevant Filing Channel

The filing channel depends on the court.

The UAE Ministry of Justice operates an e-filing system that allows parties and lawyers to submit cases electronically, verify submitted information and documents, and receive notifications or receipts relating to registration and fee payment.

Abu Dhabi Judicial Department also provides electronic case-registration services, while certain cases may be registered through licensed law firms or registered typing centres.

5. Pay the Court Fees

Once the case is accepted for registration, applicable court fees must generally be paid before the case proceeds.

The amount is not one fixed fee across the UAE. It can depend on the emirate, court, type of case, claim value and specific requests.

For example, Abu Dhabi Judicial Department states that judicial fees vary according to the nature of the case and the claims, with certain categories exempt from court fees. The applicable amount is communicated during registration.

6. Receive the Case Number and Hearing Information

After registration and payment of applicable fees, the case receives a case number and proceeds through the relevant court process.

UAE Litigation Lawyers for Individuals and Businesses

Al Ramsy Advocates provides litigation and legal representation in civil, commercial, corporate, employment, family, and other disputes before the courts across Dubai and the UAE.

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Which Court Should You File Your Case With?

Choosing the correct court is one of the most important steps before filing.

The UAE judicial system includes federal courts as well as local judicial systems established by individual emirates. Dubai, for example, has Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal and a Court of Cassation, with specialised divisions covering areas including civil, commercial, real estate, labour and personal-status matters.

Federal Courts

Federal courts handle matters falling within federal judicial jurisdiction. The Ministry of Justice provides electronic services for registering cases before the federal courts.

Dubai Courts

Dubai Courts hear a wide range of civil, commercial, criminal, family, labour and real-estate disputes through specialised courts and different levels of litigation.

Abu Dhabi Judicial Department

The Abu Dhabi Judicial Department provides digital case-registration services and allows certain cases to be registered through licensed law firms and registered typing centres.

DIFC Courts

The DIFC Courts operate under a separate legal and procedural framework and handle qualifying civil and commercial disputes connected to DIFC jurisdiction. They should not be treated as simply another filing channel for ordinary Dubai Courts cases.

Litigation Law in the UAE: Legal Guidance & Court Representation

Al Ramsy Advocates provides legal guidance and representation in civil, commercial, corporate, employment, and other litigation matters, helping clients understand UAE court procedures, legal claims, and available remedies.

Explore Litigation Law in the UAE

What Documents Are Needed to File a Case in the UAE?

The required documents depend on the type of case and the court.

For a typical civil or commercial claim, documents may include:

• Statement of claim
• Claimant’s identification documents
• Defendant’s identification and contact information, where available
• Contracts and agreements
• Invoices, payment records or financial documents
• Correspondence between the parties
• Notices or previous demands
• Expert reports, where relevant
• Powers of attorney, where a lawyer or representative is filing on behalf of a party
• Certified Arabic translations where required
• Other evidence supporting the claim

The documents required for case registration vary according to the type of case and the competent court, so the court’s specific service requirements should be checked before submitting the claim. Abu Dhabi Judicial Department, for example, directs applicants to its service guide and digital services for the documents required for each type of case.

How to File a Case Online in the UAE

The UAE has developed electronic litigation and e-filing services that allow many judicial procedures to be completed digitally.

Ministry of Justice E-Filing System

For matters falling under the federal court system, the Ministry of Justice’s e-filing system allows parties and lawyers to submit cases electronically. The system covers the process from electronic filing through subsequent case procedures and can include verification of submitted information and documents and notifications relating to registration fees.

A typical electronic filing process may involve:

1. Accessing the relevant judicial e-service
2. Logging in through the required digital identity
3. Selecting the appropriate case/service
4. Entering claimant and defendant information
5. Uploading the statement of claim and supporting documents
6. Reviewing the submitted information
7. Paying applicable fees
8. Receiving confirmation of registration and the case details

The exact interface and requirements can change, so applicants should follow the current instructions displayed by the relevant judicial authority.

Abu Dhabi Judicial Department E-Services

The Abu Dhabi Judicial Department provides a dedicated Case Registration service through its digital services. It also provides court forms, case inquiries and other litigation-related services online.

Dubai Courts

Dubai operates its own judicial system and digital services. The appropriate Dubai Courts service depends on the type of dispute and the stage of the proceedings.

How to File a Criminal Case in the UAE

A criminal case does not generally follow the same filing process as a civil lawsuit.

For criminal matters, the initial report may be made to the police or Public Prosecution, depending on the circumstances and applicable procedure. In Dubai, the Public Prosecution has authority to initiate criminal cases, investigate offences and refer cases to the competent criminal court where appropriate.

The exact procedure depends on the offence and applicable criminal-procedure rules.

For individuals or businesses facing criminal allegations, criminal defence lawyers can assist with investigations, Public Prosecution proceedings, criminal trials and appeals.

What Law Governs Filing a Civil Case in the UAE?

The main federal procedural framework for civil litigation is Federal Decree-Law No. 42 of 2022 Promulgating the Civil Procedure Code. The law establishes the procedural framework governing civil and commercial litigation before courts within its scope.

Other legislation may apply depending on the dispute.

The Civil Procedure Code is the primary federal procedural framework for civil litigation, while criminal cases are governed by the applicable criminal laws and Criminal Procedure Law.

How Long Does It Take to File a Case in the UAE?

The act of registering a case can be relatively quick once the required documents, information and fees are ready, but the overall duration of the litigation cannot be determined from the filing process alone.

The length of a case can depend on:

• Type and complexity of the dispute
• Number of parties
• Volume of evidence
• Need for expert examination
• Translation requirements
• Court schedules
• Procedural applications
• Appeals
• Enforcement proceedings

For example, Abu Dhabi Judicial Department describes a case journey that can include registration and fee payment, case preparation, hearings, judgment, appeal and enforcement.

How Much Does It Cost to File a Case in the UAE?

There is no single UAE-wide filing fee that applies to every case.

Court fees can vary based on:

• Emirate
• Court
• Type of claim
• Value of the claim
• Number and type of requests
• Applicable fee legislation
• Whether the case falls within an exemption

Abu Dhabi Judicial Department expressly states that fees vary according to the nature of the case and the requests, and that some cases are exempt.

Legal fees are separate from court fees and depend on the lawyer, complexity of the matter and scope of representation.

Do You Need a Lawyer to File a Case in the UAE?

Whether you must use a lawyer depends on the type of case, court and applicable procedural requirements.

Individuals may be able to use available electronic court services themselves in certain matters. However, complex disputes may involve jurisdictional questions, procedural deadlines, evidence, expert reports, multiple hearings or appeals.

A lawyer can assist with:

• Assessing whether you have a viable claim
• Identifying the correct court
• Drafting the statement of claim
• Reviewing evidence
• Preparing legal arguments
• Filing and following up on the case
• Representing you during hearings
• Handling appeals
• Starting enforcement proceedings

For civil and commercial disputes, litigation lawyers in the UAE can assist with case assessment, litigation strategy, court representation, appeals and enforcement.

What Happens After You File a Case?

Filing the case is only the beginning of the litigation process.

Depending on the jurisdiction and type of dispute, the case may proceed through several stages:

Case Registration

The court reviews the filing and supporting documents and registers the case once the applicable requirements are satisfied.

Notification of the Defendant

The other party must be notified according to the applicable procedural rules.

Case Preparation and Pleadings

The parties submit their written arguments, evidence and responses. Some courts may also use case-management or preparation stages before the matter reaches substantive hearings.

Hearings

The court considers the parties’ submissions and evidence and may appoint experts where appropriate.

Judgment

After considering the case, the court issues its judgment.

Appeal

Depending on the type and value of the case and applicable law, a judgment may be subject to appeal before a higher court.

Dubai, for example, has three main levels of litigation: the Court of First Instance, Court of Appeal and Court of Cassation.

Enforcement

Once a judgment becomes enforceable, the successful party may need to open an enforcement file to pursue implementation of the judgment.

Can You File a Case Without Going to Court?

Many UAE judicial procedures can now be completed electronically, reducing the need for physical attendance for certain administrative and procedural steps.

However, electronic filing does not mean that every case can be resolved without hearings or other court procedures. Depending on the case, the court may require submissions, hearings, expert work or other procedural steps.

The UAE government provides information on e-filing, virtual digital pleading and virtual litigation as part of its litigation procedures.

Common Mistakes When Filing a Case in the UAE

Several procedural or preparation errors can create unnecessary problems.

Filing Before the Wrong Court

A claim filed before a court without jurisdiction may face procedural objections or dismissal.

Submitting Incomplete Documents

Missing contracts, evidence, identification documents, translations or other required documents can delay registration or affect the case.

Using the Wrong Legal Procedure

A criminal complaint, civil lawsuit, labour dispute and rental dispute do not necessarily follow the same filing route.

Ignoring Pre-Litigation Requirements

Certain disputes may require mediation, reconciliation, family guidance or another preliminary process before reaching court.

For example, Abu Dhabi Judicial Department states that certain civil and commercial disputes may be referred to reconciliation and mediation centres before court registration, subject to applicable exceptions.

Missing Procedural Deadlines

Appeal and other procedural deadlines can be legally significant. The applicable deadline should be confirmed based on the specific case and court.

Can a Lawyer File a Case on Your Behalf?

A lawyer or authorised legal representative can handle many procedural steps on behalf of a client, subject to the applicable requirements and a valid power of attorney.

This can be particularly useful where the case involves:

• Complex contracts
• Commercial disputes
• High-value claims
• Multiple defendants
• Cross-border parties
• Technical evidence
• Appeals
• Enforcement proceedings

How Al Ramsy Advocates Can Help With Your UAE Case

Filing a case is not simply a matter of submitting documents. Choosing the right court, framing the claim correctly, preparing the evidence, and following the required procedures can all affect how a dispute progresses.

At Al Ramsy Advocates & Legal Consultants, we provide end-to-end legal support for individuals and businesses involved in disputes across the UAE.

Case Assessment and Legal Strategy

We begin by understanding the dispute, reviewing the available documents and identifying the legal issues involved. Our lawyers assess the appropriate legal route, jurisdiction, potential remedies and procedural requirements before recommending the next steps.

Claim Preparation and Filing

Our team can prepare and review the statement of claim, organise supporting evidence and ensure the filing is directed to the appropriate court or judicial authority. Where applicable, we also assist with electronic filing and follow-up on registration requirements.

Court Representation

Once the case is filed, our lawyers can represent clients throughout the proceedings, including preparing pleadings, responding to the opposing party’s submissions, presenting evidence and attending hearings before the competent UAE courts.

Appeals and Enforcement

Our support can continue beyond the first judgment. Where an appeal is legally available, we can assess the judgment and advise on the appropriate next steps. We can also assist with enforcement proceedings to pursue the implementation of an enforceable judgment.

Support for Individuals and Businesses

Whether you are pursuing an unpaid debt, contractual claim, commercial dispute, compensation claim or another civil matter, our legal team can tailor the litigation strategy to the circumstances of your case.

From assessing your claim to filing, court representation, appeals and enforcement, Al Ramsy Advocates provides structured legal support throughout the UAE litigation process.

Speak with our litigation lawyers to discuss your case and understand the appropriate legal steps.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can I file a case online in the UAE?

Yes. Many UAE judicial authorities provide electronic case-registration and litigation services, although the available services and filing requirements depend on the court and type of case. The Ministry of Justice provides an e-filing system for matters within the federal court system, while local judicial authorities such as the Abu Dhabi Judicial Department provide their own digital case-registration services.

How much does it cost to file a case in the UAE?

There is no single filing fee for all UAE cases. Court fees vary according to the emirate, court, case type, claim value and applicable fee rules, and some categories may be exempt.

Do I need a lawyer to file a case in the UAE?

Not every case requires an individual to appoint a lawyer, but the requirements vary by court and case type. Legal representation can be particularly important where the dispute involves complex procedural, jurisdictional, evidentiary or appeal issues.

How long does a UAE court case take?

There is no fixed timeframe for every UAE court case. Duration depends on the type and complexity of the dispute, evidence, expert involvement, hearings, appeals and other procedural factors.

Can a foreigner file a case in the UAE?

Foreign individuals and companies may be able to bring legal claims before UAE courts when the relevant court has jurisdiction over the dispute. The applicable jurisdiction, documents, representation requirements and procedural rules should be assessed according to the specific circumstances.

Whether the statement appears on social media, is sent through a messaging application, published online, or made through another form of publicity, the legal consequences can be significant. A person who believes they have been defamed should preserve the available evidence and obtain legal advice promptly, particularly because certain insult and defamation complaints are subject to a three-month complaint period.

What Is Defamation Under UAE Law?

Defamation generally involves communicating an allegation, statement, or characterization about another person in a way that may expose them to punishment, public hatred, or contempt.

Under Federal Decree-Law No. 31 of 2021 on the Crimes and Penalties Law, Chapter Six addresses defamatory crimes, including libel, slander, and violations involving secrets. Article 425 provides for liability where a person, through a means of publicity, attributes an incident to another person that could expose that person to punishment or public hatred or contempt.

The legal assessment does not depend solely on whether someone considers a statement offensive. The exact words or content, the method of communication, the circumstances, the person targeted, and the evidence available can all affect how the conduct is legally classified.

Defamation, Libel and Slander

In everyday language, the terms defamation, libel, and slander are often used interchangeably. From a legal perspective, however, the distinction can depend on the form and circumstances of the communication.

A statement made publicly in writing, for example, may be treated differently from an oral insult or an electronic communication. The relevant UAE legislation should therefore be considered rather than applying definitions taken from another country’s legal system.

Defamation vs. Insult

Defamation usually concerns attributing an incident or quality to another person in a way that may expose them to punishment or contempt, while insult-related offences can involve language or conduct that attacks a person’s honour or dignity.

The distinction matters because different provisions of the UAE Crimes and Penalties Law and Cybercrimes Law may apply depending on what was said and how it was communicated.

UAE Defamation Laws and Key Legal Framework

The current UAE framework does not rely on a single provision called the “Defamation Law.” Instead, different laws can apply depending on the nature and method of the alleged conduct.

The UAE legislation portal identifies Federal Decree-Law No. 31 of 2021, Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021 and Federal Decree-Law No. 42 of 2022 among the country’s current legislation.

Federal Decree-Law No. 31 of 2021: Crimes and Penalties Law

Article 425 addresses a form of libel involving the attribution of an incident to another person through a means of publicity where that allegation could expose the person to punishment or public hatred or contempt. The provision carries imprisonment of up to two years or a fine of up to AED 20,000, subject to the circumstances specified by the law.

The law also contains related provisions dealing with insulting conduct and other defamatory crimes, so the applicable article should be determined from the facts of the particular case.

Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021: Cybercrimes Law

Online defamation is treated separately under the UAE’s Cybercrimes Law.

Article 43 provides that a person who uses an information network, information technology means or an information system to insult another person or attribute a quality to them that could expose them to punishment or contempt by third parties may face imprisonment and/or a fine between AED 250,000 and AED 500,000. The law also treats the conduct as aggravated where the victim is a public official or a person entrusted with a public service and the offence is connected with their work.

This means that a defamatory post, comment, message or other electronic communication can potentially carry substantially higher financial penalties than certain offline forms of defamation.

Federal Decree-Law No. 42 of 2022: Civil Procedure

Where a person pursues a civil claim for compensation, the civil proceedings are governed by the UAE Civil Procedure Code, subject to the jurisdiction and circumstances of the case. Federal Decree-Law No. 42 of 2022 is the current Civil Procedure Code.

Federal Decree-Law No. 35 of 2022: Law of Evidence

Electronic evidence can be particularly important in defamation disputes.

The UAE Evidence Law defines electronic evidence broadly to include evidence derived from data or information generated, stored, extracted, copied, transmitted, reported or received through information technology and capable of being retrieved in an understandable form.

What Constitutes Defamation Under UAE Law?

Under UAE law, conduct may amount to defamation when a person attributes an allegation, incident, or quality to another person in a way that can harm their reputation, expose them to public contempt, or subject them to legal consequences. The legal characterization depends on the content of the statement, how it was communicated, the audience, and the specific law that applies.

Attribution of a Specific Incident or Allegation

Defamation may arise when a person attributes a specific incident, conduct, or allegation to another individual that could expose them to punishment, public hatred, or contempt. Federal Decree-Law No. 31 of 2021 on Crimes and Penalties addresses defamatory conduct involving the attribution of such incidents through means of publicity.

The exact wording and context of the statement matter when determining whether it falls within the relevant legal provision.

Harm to Reputation, Honour or Dignity

The potential impact on a person’s reputation, honour, dignity, or social standing is an important consideration. UAE law also recognizes moral damage arising from harm to a person’s honour, reputation, social standing, or similar protected interests.

However, not every unpleasant or negative statement will automatically constitute defamation. The nature of the allegation and its circumstances must be assessed under the applicable legal provisions.

Communication or Publication to a Third Party

For a statement to have a defamatory effect, it generally needs to be communicated or made available to someone other than the person concerned. This can occur through spoken statements, written publications, messages, online posts, or other forms of communication.

The number and identity of people who received the statement, as well as the circumstances in which it was communicated, may be relevant when assessing the conduct.

The Role of the Medium and Method of Communication

The way a statement is communicated can affect the applicable legal framework and potential penalties.

For example, statements published through websites, social media platforms, messaging applications, or other electronic systems may fall within the UAE’s cybercrime legislation. Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021 specifically addresses using information networks and information technology to insult another person or attribute a quality that may expose them to punishment or contempt by others. So the same underlying dispute can have different legal implications depending on whether the conduct occurred in person, through a publication, or through an electronic platform.

Defamation vs. Opinion, Criticism and Insult

Not every negative comment, criticism, or offensive statement automatically amounts to defamation. A statement alleging a specific fact or incident may need to be distinguished from an opinion or criticism, while separate UAE provisions may apply to insulting conduct.

The wording, context, intended audience, medium, and circumstances of the communication should therefore be considered before determining which legal provision applies.

Who Can Be Liable for Defamation in the UAE?

Defamation liability can potentially apply to individuals who make, publish or communicate unlawful defamatory content, depending on the facts and the applicable provision.

The circumstances can become more complicated when the statement is:

• Published publicly
• Shared through social media
• Sent through electronic communications
• Directed at a public official
• Accompanied by threats or extortion
• Combined with the disclosure of private information
• Reproduced or redistributed by other persons

The legal consequences depend on the specific conduct rather than simply on whether the content was offensive.

What Are the Penalties for Defamation in the UAE?

The applicable penalty depends on the conduct, the method of publication, the victim and the specific legal provision involved.

The figures above are statutory provisions and should not be treated as a prediction of the sentence or outcome in an individual case. Courts assess the facts and applicable law in each matter.

Defamation on Social Media and Online Platforms

Social media has made defamation disputes more complex because a single publication can potentially reach a large audience almost instantly.

Online conduct can include:

• Instagram posts and comments
• Facebook publications
• TikTok videos
• X posts and replies
• LinkedIn publications
• YouTube videos
• WhatsApp messages and groups
• Emails
• Online reviews
• Websites and blogs
• Public forums and online communities

Defamatory or insulting content published through an information network can fall under Article 43 of Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021, which provides for imprisonment and/or fines ranging from AED 250,000 to AED 500,000 in the circumstances covered by that provision.

Online Defamation Is Not Limited to Public Posts

A person does not necessarily need to publish content on a public website for an electronic communication to become legally relevant.

The circumstances, recipients, content and method of communication all matter. A private electronic message can potentially raise legal issues depending on what it contains and which legal provisions apply.

Sharing Private Information Can Create Additional Liability

Defamation can overlap with privacy offences.

Article 44 of the Cybercrimes Law addresses the use of information networks or information technology to invade the privacy or sanctity of private or family life without consent. It specifically covers certain acts involving conversations, communications, images, recordings, data and information.

Importantly, the provision also addresses publishing certain news, images, comments, data or information—even if true and genuine—where it is done with the intention of causing harm.

This is why simply arguing that information is “true” does not automatically resolve every UAE online reputation or privacy dispute.

What Evidence Is Needed for a Defamation Claim?

Evidence can determine whether a complaint or claim can be properly established.

Useful evidence may include:

• Screenshots of the defamatory statement
• The original post or publication
• URLs to the relevant content
• Videos or audio recordings where legally obtained
• Emails
• WhatsApp or other electronic messages
• Social media usernames and account details
• Information identifying the date and time of publication
• Witness statements
• Evidence showing how widely the statement was circulated
• Evidence of financial or professional harm
• Certified Arabic translations where required

Preserve the Original Evidence

Do not rely solely on a cropped screenshot.

Where possible, preserve:

1. The complete conversation or publication.
2. The profile or account that published it.
3. The URL.
4. The date and time.
5. The surrounding conversation or context.
6. The original electronic file.
7. Any subsequent reposts or shares.

Electronic evidence is expressly recognized under the UAE Evidence Law, subject to the applicable legal requirements.

Avoid Editing or Altering the Evidence

Editing screenshots, deleting messages, changing files or otherwise manipulating digital material can undermine its evidentiary value.

If the content is particularly serious, obtain legal advice before contacting the other party or taking steps that could affect the available evidence.

How to File a Defamation Complaint in the UAE

Certain insult and slander offences are complaint-based offences.

Under Article 11 of Federal Decree-Law No. 38 of 2022 on the Criminal Procedure Law, the victim or their legal representative must submit a complaint for specified offences, including insult and slander. The complaint generally cannot be accepted after three months from the date the victim becomes aware of the crime and its perpetrator, unless the law provides otherwise.

For a complaint-based defamation offence, the three-month period can be critical: the victim generally needs to act within three months from becoming aware of both the offence and the offender, unless an exception applies.

Step 1: Preserve the Evidence

Collect the original content, screenshots, links, messages and any other relevant material.

Step 2: Obtain a Legal Assessment

A lawyer can assess:

• Whether the conduct may constitute defamation, insult or another offence.
• Which legislation may apply.
• Whether the matter is complaint-based.
• Whether the complaint period is still open.
• What evidence is available.
• Whether civil compensation may also be considered.

For criminal allegations and proceedings, you can consult Al Ramsy’s criminal defence lawyers for case assessment and representation.

Step 3: Submit the Criminal Complaint

Depending on the circumstances and applicable procedure, a complaint may be submitted to the competent authorities, including the police or Public Prosecution. UAE government guidance confirms that certain complaints, including defamation and slander, are submitted by the victim or legal representative to initiate the criminal process.

Step 4: Investigation and Prosecution

The competent authorities may investigate the complaint, review the evidence and determine whether the matter should proceed.

The Public Prosecution has responsibility for initiating and conducting criminal proceedings in accordance with the Criminal Procedure Law.

Step 5: Court Proceedings

If the matter proceeds to court, the parties may need to present evidence and legal arguments in accordance with the applicable criminal procedure.

UAE Criminal Defence Legal Support for Individuals and Businesses

Al Ramsy Advocates provides criminal defence and legal representation in police investigations, Public Prosecution matters, criminal trials, appeals, cybercrime cases, and other criminal proceedings across Dubai and the UAE.

Explore Our Criminal Defence Services

Can You Claim Compensation for Defamation in the UAE?

Yes, a person who suffers legally recognized damage may potentially pursue civil compensation, depending on the facts and applicable legal requirements.

UAE Civil Transactions Law Article 293 expressly recognizes moral damage involving infringement of a person’s dignity, honour, reputation, social standing or financial condition.

Potentially relevant losses may include:

• Financial losses
• Business losses
• Professional harm
• Damage to reputation
• Other material losses
• Moral damage

The amount of compensation is not automatically fixed by the existence of a defamation allegation. The claimant must establish the relevant damage and the legal basis for compensation.

Criminal Complaint vs. Civil Claim

These are different legal routes.

A lawyer should assess whether one or both routes are appropriate rather than assuming that every defamation dispute should follow the same procedure.

What Defences May Be Relevant in a Defamation Case?

The available defence depends heavily on the exact allegation and circumstances.

Potential issues may include:

• Whether the statement was actually made by the accused.
• Whether the content was communicated to another person.
• Whether the legal elements of the relevant offence are satisfied.
• Whether the content falls within a different legally protected context.
• Whether the alleged conduct is properly classified as defamation, insult, privacy infringement or another offence.
• Whether the required complaint was submitted within the applicable period.
• Whether the evidence is authentic and reliable.
• Whether the accused person’s conduct falls within a statutory exception or defence.

The fact that a statement is true does not automatically eliminate every potential legal issue in the UAE, particularly where the conduct may also involve privacy or intentional harm. Article 44 of the Cybercrimes Law expressly addresses certain publication of information even where the information is true and genuine when done with the intention of causing harm.

Because the legal classification depends on the facts, statements should be assessed individually rather than relying on a general “truth is a defence” rule from another jurisdiction.

Defamation Involving Businesses and Professionals

Defamatory statements can have consequences beyond personal reputation.

Businesses and professionals may face allegations involving:

• Fraud
• Dishonesty
• Professional misconduct
• Poor-quality services
• Financial misconduct
• Criminal conduct
• Misrepresentation
• Workplace conduct

An online allegation can potentially affect customer relationships, employment, commercial opportunities and professional standing.

Where the publication concerns a company, business owner, employee or professional, the appropriate legal route will depend on the identity of the affected party and the nature of the content.

Defamation, Online Reviews and Customer Complaints

Not every negative review is automatically defamation.

A customer complaint, review or criticism needs to be assessed according to its actual wording, context, factual allegations and method of publication.

There is an important difference between:

• Expressing an opinion or criticism.
• Reporting a genuine experience.
• Making a factual allegation about criminal or dishonest conduct.
• Publishing private information.
• Deliberately circulating false allegations.

The legal analysis should therefore focus on the actual content rather than simply whether a review is negative.

Defamation and Employment Disputes

Defamation can also arise in the workplace.

Examples may include allegations made through:

• Internal emails
• Workplace messaging groups
• HR complaints
• Social media
• Communications with clients or colleagues
• Public statements concerning an employee or employer

Employment-related defamation may overlap with labour, privacy, criminal or civil issues. Where the dispute involves both employment rights and potentially defamatory conduct, obtaining advice on the different legal issues can help prevent the matter from being handled under the wrong legal framework.

How a UAE Lawyer Can Help With a Defamation Case

Defamation disputes can involve both substantive criminal law and procedural requirements. Early legal advice can help identify the correct legal route and preserve important evidence.

A lawyer can assist with:

• Reviewing the alleged defamatory statement.
• Assessing whether the conduct may constitute an offence.
• Identifying the applicable UAE legislation.
• Reviewing screenshots and electronic evidence.
• Preparing a criminal complaint.
• Advising on the complaint deadline.
• Communicating with the relevant authorities.
• Representing the client during investigation or prosecution proceedings.
• Assessing potential civil compensation claims.
• Preparing civil proceedings where appropriate.
• Defending a person accused of defamation.
• Handling related privacy or cybercrime allegations.

For matters involving criminal complaints, online defamation or related cybercrime allegations, UAE criminal defence services can provide legal assessment and representation.

Where the dispute develops into a civil claim for damages, UAE litigation lawyers can assist with case assessment, strategy, court proceedings and enforcement.

Practical Steps If You Have Been Defamed in the UAE

If you believe someone has defamed you, avoid responding impulsively.

Instead:

1. Preserve the evidence before the content is deleted or changed.
2. Record the account name, URL, date and time.
3. Keep the complete conversation rather than only isolated screenshots.
4. Avoid threatening the other party or publishing further allegations.
5. Do not alter or manipulate electronic evidence.
6. Determine whether the complaint deadline is approaching.
7. Obtain legal advice on the applicable criminal and civil remedies.
8. Consider whether privacy, cybercrime or other offences may also be involved.

Prompt action is particularly important for complaint-based offences because the Criminal Procedure Law provides a three-month period in the circumstances covered by Article 11.

Frequently Asked Questions About Defamation Law in the UAE

What is considered defamation under UAE law?

Defamation can involve attributing an incident or quality to another person in a manner that may expose them to punishment, public hatred or contempt, with the applicable legal provision depending on the circumstances and method of communication.

Is online defamation a crime in the UAE?

Yes. Article 43 of Federal Decree-Law No. 34 of 2021 addresses certain acts of defamation and slander committed through information networks, information technology or information systems and provides for imprisonment and/or fines between AED 250,000 and AED 500,000.

How long do I have to file a defamation complaint in the UAE?

For complaint-based offences covered by Article 11 of the Criminal Procedure Law, the complaint generally cannot be accepted after three months from the date the victim becomes aware of the crime and its perpetrator, unless the law provides otherwise.

What Is the Penalty for Defamation in the UAE?

The penalty depends on the type of conduct and the law that applies. For example, Article 425 of the Crimes and Penalties Law provides for imprisonment of up to two years or a fine of up to AED 20,000 for certain publicly committed defamatory conduct, while Article 43 of the Cybercrimes Law provides for imprisonment and/or a fine of AED 250,000 to AED 500,000 for specified online defamation.

What Evidence Is Needed to Prove Defamation in the UAE?

Relevant evidence may include original messages or posts, screenshots, URLs, timestamps, electronic records, witness evidence, and other material that helps establish what was communicated, by whom, and in what context.

Can I sue for compensation after defamation?

Potentially. UAE civil law recognizes moral damage arising from infringement of a person’s reputation, dignity, honour, social standing or financial condition, subject to the applicable requirements for civil liability and proof of damage.

Can a lawyer help with an online defamation complaint?

A UAE lawyer can review the content and evidence, assess the applicable criminal and civil provisions, advise on procedural deadlines, and assist with complaints, investigations, court proceedings or related compensation claims.

Conclusion

Defamation law in the UAE combines criminal provisions, cybercrime legislation and civil remedies. The applicable rules can differ significantly depending on whether the alleged conduct occurred through a public statement, written publication, social media platform, electronic communication or another medium.

The most important practical steps are to preserve the evidence, avoid escalating the dispute publicly, identify the correct legal framework and act promptly where a complaint deadline applies.

Because defamation cases are highly fact-specific, a legal assessment should be based on the exact statement, the method of publication, the audience, available evidence and the potential harm involved.

That is why corporate law services in the UAE extend well beyond company registration. They help businesses document ownership, allocate authority, complete corporate approvals and manage structural changes under the legal framework that applies to the particular company. Businesses dealing with these issues can also use dedicated corporate legal services in the UAE when a corporate decision requires legal documents, approvals or changes to registered company information.

What Corporate Law Services Do UAE Businesses Use?

Corporate law services support businesses through changes in ownership, governance, structure, transactions and company status. The exact support required depends on the company’s legal form, jurisdiction and the corporate event taking place.

Common corporate legal services in the UAE include:

Company Formation and Business Setup

Legal support with selecting the appropriate company structure, establishing ownership arrangements, preparing incorporation documents and completing the relevant corporate setup requirements.

Businesses at the incorporation stage can use dedicated business setup legal services.

Corporate Governance

Corporate governance advice helps define how decisions are made between shareholders, directors and management.

This can include board authority, shareholder rights, reserved matters, corporate approvals and governance documents.

Businesses reviewing their internal decision-making framework can use corporate governance services.

Corporate Documents and Approvals

Corporate lawyers may prepare and review documents such as:

• Memorandum of Association;
• Articles of Association;
• board resolutions;
• shareholder resolutions;
• powers of attorney;
• authorised-signatory documents; and
• amendments to company records.

Shareholder and Ownership Changes

Legal support may be required when:

• a shareholder enters or exits;
• shares are transferred;
• ownership percentages change;
• an investor joins the company; or
• shareholder rights need to be revised.

Joint Ventures and Shareholder Arrangements

Businesses establishing joint ventures may need advice on ownership, voting rights, board representation, funding obligations, transfer restrictions, deadlock and exit rights.

Corporate Transactions and Restructuring

Corporate legal services may also support:

• acquisitions;
• investments;
• corporate restructuring;
• group reorganisations;
• company conversions;
• asset transfers; and
• changes to the company’s legal structure.

Commercial Agreements

Corporate transactions often involve contracts such as shareholder agreements, investment documents, NDAs, partnership agreements and other commercial arrangements.

Where contractual drafting or negotiation is required, businesses may also use contract legal services.

Company Liquidation and Deregistration

When a company is being closed, legal support may include shareholder resolutions, liquidation documentation, creditor and liability issues, licence cancellation and final deregistration.

Businesses preparing to wind down an entity can use company liquidation legal services.

Corporate Legal Work Starts Before the Company Exists

Some of the most consequential corporate decisions are made before incorporation.

The founders need to decide more than where to obtain a trade licence. They may need to determine:

• the legal form of the company;
• the appropriate UAE jurisdiction;
• who will own the business;
• whether different economic or voting rights are required;
• who will manage the company;
• which decisions require shareholder approval;
• how future investors can enter;
• how a founder can leave; and
• whether the proposed activity needs additional regulatory approval.

For mainland companies within the scope of the UAE Commercial Companies Law, Federal Decree-Law No. 32 of 2021, as amended, forms part of the principal federal corporate framework. The legislation was materially amended by Federal Decree-Law No. 20 of 2025, including changes affecting ownership structures, company conversions and the transfer of company registration between relevant jurisdictions.

Free-zone companies, DIFC entities and ADGM entities may operate under different company-law and registration regimes.

The legal structure should therefore follow the proposed business rather than the other way around.

Founders who are still deciding how the company should be established can obtain advice through business setup legal services before ownership and management arrangements become fixed in the incorporation documents.

Foreign Ownership Should Be Checked Against the Activity, Not Assumed

The UAE has significantly liberalised foreign ownership of companies, and many economic activities are open to 100% foreign ownership.

That does not mean every activity can be described as unrestricted.

Certain activities classified as having strategic impact remain subject to specific ownership, approval or regulatory requirements. The Ministry of Economy and Tourism currently identifies strategic-impact sectors under Cabinet Resolution No. 55 of 2021, with the relevant regulator able to impose ownership or other conditions depending on the activity.

This means the useful question before incorporation is not simply:

“Can a foreign investor own 100% of a UAE company?”

It is:

“What ownership rules apply to this company, in this jurisdiction, for this licensed activity?”

That distinction becomes particularly important in regulated sectors.

When a New Shareholder or Investor Joins

An investment changes more than the percentage ownership shown on a company record.

The transaction may affect:

• voting rights;
• board appointments;
• management control;
• dividend rights;
• access to information;
• future funding obligations;
• restrictions on transferring shares;
• rights of first refusal;
• minority protections;
• reserved matters;
• exit mechanisms; and
• the circumstances in which a shareholder can be diluted.

This is where corporate documents need to work together.

The Memorandum of Association, Articles of Association where applicable, shareholders’ agreement, investment documents and company records should not create conflicting rights.

For example, an investor may negotiate a contractual veto over a particular decision. If the company’s constitutional documents or applicable corporate procedure require a different approval mechanism, the parties need to understand how those documents interact before the transaction closes.

The corporate lawyer’s role is therefore not limited to drafting an investment agreement. It may include mapping the rights being negotiated against the formal governance and approval framework of the company.

The 2025 Companies Law Amendments Create New Structuring Options

Corporate documents drafted several years ago should not automatically be assumed to reflect the current UAE framework.

Federal Decree-Law No. 20 of 2025 introduced important amendments to the Commercial Companies Law.

Among the changes highlighted by the Ministry of Economy and Tourism are greater flexibility for multiple classes of quotas in limited liability companies and multiple classes of shares in joint-stock companies, subject to the applicable rules and implementing requirements.

The amendments also provide a framework allowing a company’s registration to be transferred between emirates, free zones and financial free zones while maintaining its original legal personality, contracts and obligations, subject to the applicable conditions and authority procedures. They also expanded flexibility around conversion between legal forms.

For shareholders and investors, these developments make it even more important to review the current law before using an old corporate template or assuming that the options available when the company was first established remain unchanged.

When Management or Signing Authority Changes

Not every important corporate change involves ownership.

A company may retain the same shareholders while changing:

• a director;
• a manager;
• an authorised signatory;
• board composition;
• delegated authority; or
• internal approval limits.

These changes can affect who has legal authority to commit the company.

A well-run business should be able to answer:

Who can sign this agreement?

Does the transaction require board approval?

Does it require shareholder approval?

Is a power of attorney necessary?

Do the company’s official records still match its actual management structure?

Unclear authority creates avoidable risk.

A contract may be commercially agreed while the person signing it lacks the required corporate authority. A bank mandate may not reflect a recent management change. A shareholder resolution may be prepared when the company’s governance documents actually require a board decision.

Where authority or decision-making arrangements need to be clarified, corporate governance services can help align board, shareholder and management powers with the company’s legal documents and records.

Corporate Governance Is About Who Can Decide What

Governance is sometimes treated as a policy issue relevant only to large companies.

For privately held businesses, however, many governance problems are much more practical.

Two shareholders may each own 50% of a business but have no agreed mechanism for resolving deadlock.

A founder may remain the majority shareholder but give an investor approval rights over significant expenditure.

Several family shareholders may own the company while management authority sits with one branch of the family.

A holding company may need approval procedures that work across several subsidiaries.

The legal work is therefore about allocating authority clearly.

Depending on the company, that can involve:

• board composition;
• shareholder voting;
• reserved matters;
• management powers;
• signing authority;
• conflicts of interest;
• corporate records;
• board resolutions;
• shareholder resolutions; and
• procedures for changing those arrangements.

Good governance documentation is most valuable before disagreement occurs.

When the Company Signs a Major Commercial Deal

Corporate law and contract law frequently meet at the point where a company enters an important transaction.

Consider a company signing:

• a long-term distribution agreement;
• a joint venture;
• a strategic supply arrangement;
• a technology licence;
• a major services contract;
• an asset purchase;
• a financing arrangement; or
• an agreement granting exclusivity.

The contract defines the commercial rights between the parties.

Corporate law answers a different set of questions:

• Does the company have authority to enter the transaction?
• Which corporate body must approve it?
• Is shareholder consent required?
• Are there existing agreements restricting the transaction?
• Does it trigger rights held by another shareholder or investor?
• Who is authorised to execute the documents?

This is why significant transactions often require both corporate approvals and properly drafted commercial documentation.

Where the transaction itself requires drafting or negotiation, the company may also need contract legal services alongside corporate advice.

Joint Ventures Need Rules for Disagreement as Well as Cooperation

At the beginning of a joint venture, the parties are usually focused on what they will do together.

Corporate drafting also needs to consider what happens when they do not agree.

A joint venture structure may need to address:

• ownership;
• contributions;
• management responsibilities;
• board representation;
• voting thresholds;
• reserved decisions;
• additional funding;
• distributions;
• transfer restrictions;
• deadlock;
• default;
• change of control;
• exit; and
• dispute resolution.

These issues should be designed around the commercial relationship.

A 50/50 ownership structure, for example, can operate successfully when the parties have a functioning decision-making and deadlock framework. Without one, the same structure can make important company decisions impossible.

The legal structure should therefore anticipate both cooperation and disagreement.

When the Business Buys, Sells or Invests in Another Company

An acquisition or investment introduces another layer of corporate work.

Before acquiring a company or significant shareholding, the buyer may need to understand what it is actually acquiring.

Legal due diligence may examine areas such as:

• ownership and corporate records;
• constitutional documents;
• shareholder rights;
• material agreements;
• financing arrangements;
• existing security;
• licences and approvals;
• litigation;
• intellectual property;
• employment issues;
• regulatory matters; and
• obligations triggered by a change of control.

Findings can then affect the transaction structure.

A particular risk may be dealt with through:

• a condition before completion;
• contractual protection;
• restructuring before closing;
• a price adjustment;
• a specific indemnity; or
• a decision not to proceed.

The objective of due diligence is therefore not simply to produce a long legal report.

It is to identify issues that matter to the transaction.

Corporate Records Need to Follow the Business as It Changes

Companies evolve.

A business that was incorporated with two founders may later have investors, subsidiaries, new managers, financing arrangements and a different ownership structure.

Its legal records should evolve with it.

Depending on the company and jurisdiction, records that may require attention include:

• constitutional documents;
• shareholder registers;
• management or director records;
• beneficial ownership information;
• board resolutions;
• shareholder resolutions;
• powers of attorney;
• authorised-signatory records; and
• licensing information.

The current UAE beneficial-ownership framework is governed by Cabinet Decision No. 109 of 2023 on Regulating the Beneficial Owner Procedures, and the Ministry of Economy has confirmed that the framework applies to relevant private-sector establishments, including companies in commercial free zones, subject to its scope and exceptions.

Beneficial ownership should therefore be treated as an ongoing corporate-record issue where the applicable rules require it, not simply as information collected once when the company is formed.

ESR Should Not Be Listed as a Current Annual Filing Requirement

Older corporate compliance checklists often include Economic Substance Regulations, or ESR, as an annual filing obligation.

That can now be misleading.

The UAE Ministry of Finance announced that, following Cabinet Decision No. 98 of 2024, companies are no longer required to file ESR notifications or reports for financial years ending after 31 December 2022.

Companies can, however, remain responsible for obligations connected with earlier periods, including responding to information requests and dealing with penalties or historical compliance matters.

A current corporate compliance review should therefore distinguish between:

historical ESR exposure

and

current recurring corporate obligations.

Simply copying ESR into a 2026 annual compliance checklist without that qualification would be outdated.

When the Company Needs to Restructure

A restructuring is not necessarily a sign that the business is in difficulty.

Companies restructure for many reasons:

• a new investor is entering;
• ownership is being consolidated;
• a group is preparing for sale;
• operations are moving between entities;
• assets are being separated;
• a holding structure is being introduced;
• the company is entering a new jurisdiction;
• financing requires a different structure; or
• the existing entity no longer fits the business.

The legal work may involve combinations of:

• share transfers;
• asset transfers;
• corporate approvals;
• changes to constitutional documents;
• ownership changes;
• company conversions;
• licence amendments;
• contractual consents; and
• regulatory approvals.

The 2025 amendments to the UAE Commercial Companies Law are particularly relevant to restructuring because they introduced additional flexibility concerning company conversions and transfers of registration while preserving legal personality, subject to the applicable conditions.

Before restructuring, companies should also identify what the change does to existing contracts, financing, licences and shareholder rights.

Moving the corporate structure does not automatically move every commercial right without consequence.

Sometimes the Right Corporate Decision Is to Close the Company

A corporate structure that no longer has a commercial purpose should not necessarily be left dormant indefinitely.

Closure may become relevant when:

• the business has stopped trading;
• shareholders have decided to end the venture;
• a group no longer requires the entity;
• assets have been transferred elsewhere;
• restructuring makes the company redundant; or
• the company can no longer operate as originally intended.

Liquidation is different from simply allowing a licence to expire.

Depending on the company’s legal form and registration authority, the process may involve:

• shareholder approval;
• appointment of a liquidator where required;
• settlement of liabilities;
• creditor issues;
• employee matters;
• contract termination;
• regulatory clearances;
• licence cancellation; and
• final deregistration.

Companies preparing to wind down operations can review the appropriate route with company liquidation lawyers before assuming that licence cancellation alone closes the legal entity.

Where the company is experiencing serious financial distress, the analysis may also need to consider the UAE financial restructuring and bankruptcy framework rather than ordinary voluntary liquidation alone.

One Company Can Have Several Corporate Law Frameworks Around It

“UAE company” does not identify a single corporate rulebook.

The legal framework can differ depending on whether the company is:

• established on the mainland;
• incorporated in a commercial free zone;
• established in DIFC;
• established in ADGM;
• regulated by a sector-specific authority; or
• part of a group containing entities across several of those jurisdictions.

Federal legislation may apply differently depending on the entity and activity, while DIFC and ADGM maintain separate company-law frameworks in important areas.

Sector regulation can add another layer.

The correct corporate law service should therefore start by identifying the entity, jurisdiction and transaction before determining the required documents or approvals.

Corporate Documents Should Reflect the Real Business

A corporate file can be technically complete and still fail to reflect how the company actually operates.

For example:

• the registered manager may no longer control day-to-day decisions;
• an old power of attorney may remain in circulation;
• the MOA may not reflect a recent ownership arrangement;
• shareholder approval rights may exist only in a side agreement;
• a new investment may have changed economic rights without corresponding governance changes; or
• a group restructuring may have altered the purpose of an entity.

Periodic corporate review can help identify these gaps.

The aim is not to create more paperwork.

It is to make sure the legal record of the company continues to match its ownership, authority and commercial structure.

Questions UAE Companies Commonly Ask

Does Every UAE Company Need the Same Corporate Legal Documents?

No. Required documents depend on the company’s legal form, jurisdiction, ownership, activity and transaction. A mainland LLC, DIFC company and commercial free-zone entity may have different constitutional, approval and filing requirements.

Can a Foreign Investor Own 100% of a UAE Company?

Many UAE business activities permit 100% foreign ownership, but the rule should not be applied without checking the activity. Activities classified as having strategic impact may remain subject to ownership limits, regulatory approvals or other conditions.

Are UAE Companies Still Required to File ESR Reports?

Not for financial years ending after 31 December 2022. The Ministry of Finance cancelled ESR notification and reporting requirements for those periods. Historical obligations relating to earlier financial years can still remain relevant.

When Should Corporate Documents Be Updated?

A review may be required when ownership, management, authorised signatories, company activities, governance rights or the corporate structure changes. The exact filing and documentation requirements depend on the company and its registration authority.

Is Corporate Legal Advice Only Needed for Large Companies?

No. The complexity of the legal issue matters more than company size. A privately held business with two shareholders can face significant governance, ownership or contractual issues even if it has relatively simple operations.

Corporate Legal Support Should Follow the Decision the Business Is Making

Corporate legal work is most useful when it is connected to a real business decision.

Before incorporation, it helps establish the ownership and authority framework.

When investors enter, it helps document new rights and protections.

During operations, it helps ensure important company decisions are validly approved and recorded.

During transactions and restructuring, it helps coordinate ownership, contracts, approvals and regulatory requirements.

And when a company reaches the end of its useful life, it helps bring the legal entity to an orderly close.

Al Ramsy Advocates provides corporate legal support to UAE businesses, founders, shareholders and investors on company formation, governance, ownership changes, corporate documentation, transactions, restructuring and liquidation.

The most useful starting point is to define the transaction, identify the relevant jurisdiction and decide whether the business needs ongoing business law advice in the UAE or specialist counsel for a particular deal or dispute.

Commercial Law Firms in Dubai to Consider

Businesses searching for commercial legal counsel in Dubai will find a mix of UAE-based firms, regional practices and international law firms. The appropriate choice depends on the type of transaction, the applicable jurisdiction and whether the business requires advisory, transactional or dispute-resolution support.

Some commercial law firms with established Dubai practices include:

Al Ramsy Advocates & Legal Consultancy

Al Tamimi & Company has a substantial Dubai practice covering commercial contracts, corporate structuring, M&A, regulatory matters, banking and finance, arbitration and litigation. Its dedicated commercial practice also advises on agency, distribution, franchise and other day-to-day business arrangements.

Hadef & Partners

Hadef & Partners operates a dedicated commercial practice in the UAE. Its commercial lawyers advise on contracting, distribution, franchising, services arrangements, market entry and cross-border trading relationships.

Clyde & Co

Clyde & Co’s Dubai office advises domestic and international businesses on corporate and commercial matters including company structuring, governance, licensing, procurement and commercial contracts. The firm also has litigation and arbitration capability in the UAE and DIFC.

BSA Ahmad Bin Hezeem & Associates

BSA has a Dubai office in DIFC and a dedicated commercial practice. Its broader UAE offering includes commercial advisory and dispute-related work, alongside other business-law practices.

Afridi & Angell is headquartered in Dubai and advises on corporate and commercial transactions, business establishment, joint ventures, governance, commercial contracting, supply and distribution arrangements, acquisitions and cross-border agreements.

Start With the Legal Matter, Not the Law Firm

Commercial law covers a wide range of business activity.

A company may need legal support for:

• negotiating a major customer or supplier agreement;
• establishing a joint venture;
• reorganising ownership;
• acquiring another business;
• reviewing regulatory requirements;
• recovering a commercial debt;
• resolving a shareholder disagreement;
• defending or pursuing a contractual claim; or
• managing a transaction involving several countries.

These matters do not necessarily require the same type of lawyer.

Before approaching firms, management should be able to answer three basic questions:

What is happening commercially?

Which legal system or dispute forum is involved?

What outcome does the business need from its legal team?

For example, a company may not simply need “a contract lawyer”. It may need counsel who understands distribution arrangements, UAE competition or agency issues, cross-border payment terms and dispute-resolution provisions.

Defining the matter first makes comparisons between firms much more useful.

Which Legal System Applies to the Matter?

Dubai businesses may encounter several legal environments, and the distinction can materially affect the type of counsel required.

UAE Onshore Matters

Many businesses operating in Dubai contract and conduct transactions under UAE federal legislation and applicable Dubai laws.

Typical matters may include:

• commercial agreements;
• corporate arrangements;
• supply relationships;
• shareholder issues;
• payment disputes;
• distribution arrangements; and
• commercial litigation.

If a dispute may proceed before Dubai Courts, businesses should also consider practical issues such as Arabic court documentation, legal translation and who will undertake advocacy before the court.

A strong transactional team is not automatically the same as a strong litigation team.

Where court proceedings are a realistic possibility, ask early whether the proposed team has experience with the relevant type of dispute and how representation before Dubai Courts would be handled.

DIFC Matters

The Dubai International Financial Centre has its own legal and judicial framework.

DIFC Courts operate in English and apply a common-law framework within their jurisdiction.

DIFC experience may therefore be important where the matter involves:

• a DIFC entity;
• a DIFC-governed contract;
• DIFC Courts jurisdiction;
• financial services;
• investment structures;
• sophisticated shareholder arrangements; or
• cross-border transactions structured through DIFC.

A commercial lawyer experienced mainly with UAE onshore work should not automatically be assumed to have the same depth of DIFC experience.

The reverse is also true.

The relevant question is whether the team has worked within the legal framework that actually applies to the transaction.

ADGM Connections

ADGM is based in Abu Dhabi rather than Dubai, but it can still be relevant to Dubai-based businesses.

A group may have entities in more than one UAE jurisdiction, or an investment may involve an ADGM holding company, fund, financing vehicle or contractual arrangement.

Where that happens, the legal team may need to coordinate advice across UAE onshore law, DIFC, ADGM or foreign jurisdictions.

Arbitration

Some businesses will never need to litigate a commercial agreement before a national court because their contracts require arbitration.

That changes the selection criteria.

For arbitration matters, experience with the following may become important:

• arbitration clauses;
• arbitral institutions;
• seat of arbitration;
• governing law;
• procedural strategy;
• interim measures;
• enforcement; and
• cross-border assets.

A business dealing with an international dispute may therefore require dedicated international arbitration lawyers rather than relying solely on general commercial advisory counsel.

Match the Lawyer to the Transaction

Once the jurisdiction is clear, the next question is what kind of legal work the business actually needs.

Commercial Agreements

Contracts are a major part of commercial legal practice, but different contracts create different legal and operational risks.

Relevant agreements may include:

• supply contracts;
• distribution agreements;
• service agreements;
• procurement contracts;
• franchise arrangements;
• commercial agency agreements;
• licensing agreements;
• technology agreements;
• confidentiality agreements; and
• framework agreements.

When evaluating counsel for contract work, ask whether the lawyer understands how the transaction operates commercially.

Good contract advice should address more than drafting style.

It should consider issues such as:

• payment mechanics;
• delivery obligations;
• liability;
• performance standards;
• termination rights;
• change-control procedures;
• dispute mechanisms; and
• enforceability.

For important commercial agreements, businesses may need dedicated contract legal services rather than a general review of wording alone.

Corporate Transactions Require a Different Skill Set

Commercial and corporate work often overlap, but they are not identical.

A change in ownership, investment or corporate structure may require advice on:

• share transfers;
• shareholder rights;
• corporate approvals;
• board authority;
• constitutional documents;
• restructuring;
• investment terms;
• due diligence; and
• regulatory filings.

Where the matter affects ownership or control of the company, the business should assess whether the firm has a substantive corporate law practice rather than treating the issue as a simple contract exercise.

Joint Ventures Need Both Legal and Commercial Planning

A joint venture agreement is not merely a document recording ownership percentages.

It must explain how two or more parties will operate a business together.

Legal counsel may need to address:

• capital contributions;
• management responsibilities;
• board appointments;
• voting thresholds;
• reserved matters;
• future funding;
• profit distribution;
• transfer restrictions;
• deadlock;
• default;
• exit; and
• disputes.

The quality of the legal work often depends on whether the lawyer can identify where commercial interests may diverge after the relationship begins.

A joint venture that works only when all parties agree is usually incomplete.

M&A Counsel Should Be Able to Look Beyond the Purchase Agreement

For acquisitions and investments, document drafting is only one part of the legal work.

Counsel may also need to examine:

• ownership records;
• constitutional documents;
• material customer and supplier contracts;
• licences;
• regulatory approvals;
• employment arrangements;
• intellectual property;
• disputes;
• liabilities;
• change-of-control provisions; and
• completion requirements.

Due diligence should help the buyer or investor understand which risks affect valuation, deal structure, contractual protection or the decision to proceed.

A long due-diligence report is not necessarily more useful than a focused report that identifies the issues

management actually needs to decide.

When Does Disputes Capability Matter?

Not every law firm advising on contracts will have the same depth of litigation or arbitration experience.

That matters when:

• a contract has already been breached;
• payment is overdue;
• a shareholder relationship has broken down;
• termination is being considered;
• urgent relief may be needed; or
• management expects enforcement proceedings.

At that point, legal advice should consider what happens if negotiations fail.

The firm may need to assess:

• evidence;
• notices;
• contractual remedies;
• limitation periods;
• jurisdiction;
• procedural strategy;
• settlement;
• court proceedings;
• arbitration; and
• enforcement.

Companies dealing with an active dispute should therefore consider whether they need commercial litigation lawyers rather than purely transactional advice.

How Should Businesses Compare Commercial Law Firms in Dubai?

A useful comparison should focus on the requirements of the matter.

No single factor determines which firm a company should appoint.

The appropriate combination depends on the transaction.

Ask Who Will Actually Work on the File

One of the most useful questions during an initial meeting is also one of the simplest:

Who will be doing the work?

The lawyer leading the introductory meeting may not handle every aspect of the matter.

Ask:

• who is responsible for the legal strategy;
• who will draft documents;
• who will attend negotiations;
• whether junior lawyers will be involved;
• whether specialists will join particular workstreams; and
• who will be the main day-to-day contact.

For a major transaction, a multi-lawyer team can be useful.

For a focused commercial agreement, an unnecessarily large team may increase cost without adding value.

The structure should fit the work.

Test Whether the Firm Understands the Business Objective

Legal advice should help management make decisions.

A commercial lawyer should therefore understand what the business is trying to achieve.

For example, a client negotiating a distribution agreement may care about:

• retaining pricing control;
• protecting territory;
• meeting sales targets;
• managing inventory;
• preventing unauthorised sub-distribution; and
• preserving a practical exit route.

The legal analysis should support those commercial priorities.

A lawyer who identifies every possible risk without distinguishing major issues from manageable ones may make decision-making harder rather than easier.

Businesses should look for advice that explains:

What is the risk?

How significant is it?

Can it be negotiated or managed?

What happens if management accepts it?

That is usually more useful than simply being told that a clause is “standard” or “non-standard”.

How Much Weight Should Industry Experience Carry?

Industry knowledge can be valuable, but its importance varies.

It becomes more significant where the transaction involves sector-specific regulation or established commercial practices.

Examples may include:

• banking and financial services;
• insurance;
• healthcare;
• construction;
• technology;
• telecommunications;
• virtual assets;
• hospitality; and
• regulated professional services.

For a heavily regulated transaction, businesses should ask whether the legal team has dealt with the relevant regulator or licensing regime.

For a straightforward commercial agreement in an unregulated sector, strong contract and negotiation experience may matter more than narrow industry specialisation.

How Can You Verify a Lawyer or Firm in Dubai?

Businesses should separate professional verification from marketing.

The Government of Dubai Legal Affairs Department maintains an official directory covering registered advocates, legal consultants and licensed advocacy and legal consultancy firms in Dubai.

This provides a useful verification step when appointing counsel.

The directory does not, however, rank firms or certify that a particular provider specialises in a certain practice area.

Registration answers one question:

Is this professional or firm registered or licensed in the relevant category?

It does not answer:

Are they the right legal team for this matter?

Businesses still need to assess relevant experience, capability and proposed scope.

Questions Worth Asking at the First Meeting

Instead of asking a law firm to give a broad presentation about its practice, use the first meeting to test issues that affect the engagement.

Useful questions include:

Have You Dealt With a Matter Like This?

The answer does not need to disclose confidential client information.

It should demonstrate familiarity with the type of transaction, the legal framework and the issues likely to arise.

Which Law and Forum Do You Expect to Apply?

If the answer is not immediately clear, counsel should explain what documents or facts are needed to determine it.

What Work Do You Expect Will Be Required?

Ask the firm to distinguish between:

• initial analysis;
• drafting;
• negotiations;
• due diligence;
• corporate approvals;
• regulatory filings;
• dispute work; and
• completion or post-completion steps.

What Could Change the Scope?

Commercial matters evolve.

A contract negotiation may become contentious.

Due diligence may uncover a regulatory issue.

A transaction may require additional approvals.

Understanding potential scope changes early makes fee and timeline discussions more realistic.

What Information Do You Need From Us?

A lawyer should be able to identify the documents and commercial information needed to begin substantive work.

That might include:

• existing agreements;
• term sheets;
• corporate documents;
• licences;
• correspondence;
• board resolutions;
• financial information; or
• a chronology of events.

How Should Businesses Compare Legal Fees?

Fee comparisons are most useful when the proposed scopes are comparable.

Commercial legal work may be charged using:

• hourly rates;
• fixed fees;
• capped fees;
• retainers;
• staged fees; or
• a combination of these approaches.

Before comparing quotations, check what each one actually includes.

For example, a fixed fee for reviewing a commercial agreement may or may not include:

• an initial call;
• a written mark-up;
• negotiation with the counterparty;
• multiple revision rounds;
• preparation of execution copies; or
• advice after signing.

The headline number alone does not show the total value or total likely cost.

Ask the firm to explain:

• assumptions;
• exclusions;
• disbursements;
• taxes where applicable;
• how additional work is approved; and
• what could cause the estimate to change.

Why Should Conflicts Be Checked Early?

Commercial law firms may already act for:

• the counterparty;
• a shareholder;
• a lender;
• another company in the same corporate group; or
• another party whose interests create a professional conflict.

For that reason, firms often need the names of relevant parties before accepting an engagement.

This can be particularly important in:

• M&A;
• joint ventures;
• financing;
• shareholder disputes; and
• complex corporate groups.

Businesses should also be clear about who the client is.

The company, founder, director and shareholder may share a commercial objective while still having legally distinct interests.

When Does a Dubai Business Need Cross-Border Legal Coordination?

Cross-border experience becomes important when the transaction cannot be analysed solely under UAE law.

For example:

A Dubai distributor may sign an agreement with a European manufacturer under foreign governing law.

A UAE company may acquire shares in an overseas business.

A foreign investor may acquire an interest in a Dubai company while financing comes from another jurisdiction.

A dispute may be arbitrated in one country but require enforcement against assets in another.

In these matters, the role of Dubai counsel may include coordinating:

• UAE corporate requirements;
• foreign legal advice;
• contractual drafting;
• regulatory approvals;
• transaction documents; and
• enforcement planning.

The objective is not for one lawyer to advise on every country’s law.

It is to ensure that separate legal workstreams do not contradict each other.

A Practical Shortlist Before You Appoint Counsel

Before signing an engagement letter, management should be comfortable with the answers to the following:

The matter
What exactly is the firm being asked to do?

The jurisdiction
Which law, court or arbitration framework is relevant?

The experience
Has the proposed team handled comparable legal issues?

The people
Who leads the matter and who performs the day-to-day work?

The scope
What is included and excluded?

The fees
How are costs calculated and when can they change?

The communication
How and when will management receive updates?

The conflicts
Has the firm confirmed that it can act?

The next stage
Can the team continue assisting if the transaction becomes contentious, regulated or cross-border?

A clear answer to these questions usually provides a more useful basis for selection than firm size alone.

Choosing Counsel for a Commercial Matter in Dubai

The legal team should fit the transaction.

A contract negotiation may require precise drafting and commercial negotiation. An acquisition may require corporate, due-diligence and regulatory capabilities. A shareholder dispute may require both corporate analysis and litigation strategy.

For businesses considering external counsel, it is useful to begin with the core documents, the parties involved, the relevant jurisdiction and the commercial outcome management wants to achieve.

Al Ramsy Advocates advises businesses, shareholders, investors and entrepreneurs on commercial agreements, corporate transactions, business operations, litigation and arbitration matters across the UAE.

Frequently Asked Questions

What Type of Lawyer Does a Business Need for a Commercial Contract in Dubai?

It depends on the agreement. A straightforward services contract may require a commercial contracts lawyer, while a distribution, agency, joint venture or regulated agreement may require additional specialist experience.

What Is the Difference Between a Corporate Lawyer and a Commercial Lawyer?

Corporate lawyers generally focus on company structure, ownership, governance, investments and transactions involving the corporate entity. Commercial lawyers often focus more heavily on contracts and business relationships. In practice, many transactions require both areas of expertise.

Should a Dubai Business Use One Law Firm for Every Legal Matter?

Not necessarily. Some businesses benefit from a full-service relationship, while others use different specialists for corporate transactions, litigation, arbitration, employment or regulatory matters. The appropriate model depends on the company’s legal needs.

How Can I Check a Lawyer or Law Firm in Dubai?

The Government of Dubai Legal Affairs Department provides an official directory of registered advocates, legal consultants and licensed legal firms. The directory can assist with professional verification but does not rank firms by quality or specialisation.

When Should a Business Involve a Commercial Lawyer?

Legal input is usually most useful before a material agreement is signed, a corporate transaction is completed or a dispute escalates. Earlier review may allow contractual, structural or procedural risks to be addressed before the business is committed to a particular position.

In force since 2 January 2023, the Law affects matters ranging from commercial sales and payment obligations to interest, commercial records, digital transactions and the time available to pursue certain claims between merchants.

For businesses, its importance is practical: contract terms concerning payment, delivery, notices, evidence and dispute resolution can directly affect how commercial rights are enforced.

What Is the UAE Commercial Transactions Law?

The UAE Commercial Transactions Law is Federal Decree-Law No. 50 of 2022 Concerning Promulgating the Commercial Transactions Law.

It replaced the previous Federal Law No. 18 of 1993 and came into force on 2 January 2023.

The Law covers a broad range of commercial matters, including:

• commercial activities;
• merchants;
• commercial books and records;
• commercial sales;
• commercial obligations;
• commercial loans;
• payment and interest;
• brokerage;
• commercial representation;
• banking operations;
• commercial papers; and
• technology-based commercial transactions.

It should not, however, be treated as the only legislation relevant to every UAE business contract.

Depending on the transaction, other laws may also apply, including the Civil Transactions Law, Commercial Companies Law, Commercial Agencies Law, arbitration legislation, financial regulation or sector-specific rules.

Who Does the Commercial Transactions Law Apply To?

Article 1 gives the Law a broad commercial scope.

It applies to merchants as well as physical and virtual commercial activities carried out through technological media or modern means of technology.

A transaction can therefore fall within the commercial framework because of:

• the status of the parties;
• the nature of the activity;
• the commercial purpose of the transaction; or
• a specific provision classifying that activity as commercial.

The Law expressly identifies a wide range of activities as commercial, including trading, banking and financial operations, commercial papers, commercial companies, insurance and virtual asset activities.

This makes classification important.

Before assuming that a specific limitation period, interest rule or commercial remedy applies, the parties should first establish whether the obligation in question falls within the relevant provision of the Commercial Transactions Law.

How Does the Commercial Transactions Law Interact With UAE Contract Law?

Commercial contracts in the UAE may be governed by more than one layer of legislation.

Article 2 of the Commercial Transactions Law establishes an important hierarchy.

Subject to mandatory commercial provisions, the agreement entered into by the parties generally governs their commercial relationship.

Where the contract does not resolve a matter and no applicable statutory commercial rule governs it, commercial custom may become relevant.

Where neither the legislation nor applicable commercial custom resolves the matter, relevant civil-law rules may apply insofar as they are consistent with the general principles of commercial activity.

This interaction became especially important in 2026.

Federal Decree-Law No. 25 of 2025 Promulgating the Civil Transactions Law came into force on 1 June 2026 and repealed the previous Federal Law No. 5 of 1985.

As a result, businesses reviewing UAE commercial agreements in 2026 should avoid relying on contract templates or legal commentary that still treats the 1985 Civil Transactions Law as the current general civil-law framework.

The practical point is straightforward: the Commercial Transactions Law and Civil Transactions Law perform different but sometimes connected functions.

What Is the Limitation Period for Commercial Claims in the UAE?

One of the most important changes introduced by the current Commercial Transactions Law concerns the period for pursuing certain obligations between merchants.

Previous Position

Under the former Federal Law No. 18 of 1993, claims relating to commercial obligations between traders were generally subject to a ten-year period, unless a shorter statutory period applied.

Current Position

Article 92 of Federal Decree-Law No. 50 of 2022 provides that, where there is denial and no lawful excuse, cases relating to merchants’ obligations against each other are barred after five years from the date on which performance of the obligation falls due, unless the law provides a shorter period.

For example, if a qualifying B2B payment obligation becomes due under a commercial agreement, the due date may become critical when calculating the applicable period.

Does Every UAE Commercial Claim Have a Five-Year Limitation Period?

No.

The five-year rule should not be stated as a universal limitation period for every dispute connected with business activity.

Article 92 contains specific wording concerning obligations between merchants, and other legislation or transaction-specific provisions may establish different periods.

Different rules may arise in areas such as:

• cheques and commercial papers;
• carriage and transport;
• insurance;
• agency;
• defects in commercial sales;
• banking;
• arbitration;
• civil obligations; or
• other specialised transactions.

Businesses should therefore identify the legal nature of the claim before calculating the deadline.

Claims involving obligations or events that span the commencement of the 2022 Law may also require separate analysis rather than simply applying the new five-year period retrospectively without examining the relevant dates and legal framework.

How Does the Law Regulate Interest on Commercial Debts?

The Commercial Transactions Law contains several provisions dealing with interest, but those provisions should be read according to the type of obligation involved.

Interest on Commercial Loans

Under Article 72, a creditor may receive interest on a commercial loan at the rate specified in the contract.

If the contract does not specify the rate, the Law refers to the market rate prevailing at the time of the transaction, subject to the statutory ceiling of 9% stated in Article 72.

This does not mean that every overdue commercial invoice automatically attracts 9% interest.

Article 72 specifically addresses commercial loans, while other provisions deal with monetary commercial obligations and delay.

Delay Interest

Article 84 addresses a commercial obligation involving a sum of money that was certain when the obligation arose.

Where the debtor delays payment, the provision links compensation for the delay to the interest rules in Articles 72 and 73 unless the parties have agreed otherwise.

Article 85 further provides that the creditor does not need to prove damage caused by the delay in order for delay interest to accrue under the applicable provision.

Article 86 states that delay interest on commercial debts accrues from maturity unless the Law or agreement provides otherwise.

Businesses should therefore draft payment and interest clauses carefully rather than relying on assumptions about what will apply following late payment.

Does UAE Commercial Law Allow Compound Interest?

Article 88 states that a creditor may not claim compound interest, meaning interest on accumulated or frozen interest, or claim that interest as complementary compensation.

The treatment of interest can nevertheless become more complex in banking and financing disputes, where other financial legislation and judicial decisions may also be relevant.

Businesses should therefore distinguish between:

• contractual interest;
• interest on a commercial loan;
• delay interest;
• court-awarded interest; and
• compound interest.

They should not be treated as interchangeable concepts.

Does the UAE Commercial Transactions Law Cover Digital Transactions?

Yes.

The current Law expressly recognises technology-based commercial activity.

Article 10 permits commercial activities, contracts and transactions to be carried out, created or concluded wholly or partly through modern technological means or technological media, subject to applicable legislation.

It also provides that commercial contracts and transactions conducted through technology are governed by the same provisions applicable to equivalent transactions carried out physically.

The Law also recognises virtual commercial activities and activities relating to virtual assets, while leaving specific regulation of virtual assets and their service providers to the relevant legislation.

The commercial framework therefore does not depend on an agreement being signed on paper.

For businesses conducting online sales, platform transactions, SaaS arrangements or other digital commercial relationships, the more important questions are whether:

• the parties can be identified;
• the agreement and acceptance can be evidenced;
• the contractual terms are accessible;
• payment records are retained;
• notices can be proved; and
• electronic records are properly maintained.

What Does the Law Mean for Commercial Sale Contracts?

The Commercial Transactions Law contains specific rules governing commercial sales.

Under Article 93, the commercial-sale provisions apply where a sale is made between merchants for commercial affairs.

Article 94 is particularly useful from a drafting perspective.

It states that parties to a commercial sale contract should address matters including:

• an accurate description of the item sold;
• its price;
• payment terms;
• place of delivery;
• time of delivery;
• the mechanism for sending notices;
• the selected address for notices;
• dispute-resolution arrangements; and
• any additional terms agreed by the parties.

For a business, this provides a useful minimum framework when reviewing a supplier, procurement or B2B sale agreement.

A vague purchase arrangement that leaves price, payment dates, delivery, notices or dispute mechanisms uncertain can create avoidable enforcement problems later.

Businesses that regularly enter supply, distribution, service or trading agreements may benefit from having their terms reviewed as part of wider contract legal services in the UAE.

What Should UAE Businesses Review in Their Commercial Contracts?

A business does not need to reproduce the Commercial Transactions Law inside its contract.

It does, however, need contractual terms that work effectively within the legal framework.

1. Payment Terms

The agreement should clearly state:

• the amount payable;
• currency;
• invoice requirements;
• payment method;
• payment schedule;
• due date;
• any conditions that must be met before payment becomes due; and
• the consequences of late payment.

Terms such as “payment within a reasonable period” create unnecessary uncertainty when a clear number of days could have been specified.

2. Maturity and Due Dates

The date on which an obligation becomes due can have consequences beyond cash flow.

It may affect:

• default;
• delay interest;
• contractual remedies; and
• the calculation of applicable limitation periods.

For recurring supplier relationships, each invoice and payment milestone should therefore be documented clearly.

3. Description of Goods or Services

A commercial contract should define what the other party is actually required to provide.

For goods, this may include:

• specifications;
• quantity;
• quality;
• model;
• packaging;
• inspection requirements; and
• acceptance criteria.

For services, it may include:

• scope;
• deliverables;
• performance standards;
• milestones; and
• completion requirements.

4. Delivery and Performance

The agreement should establish:

• where delivery takes place;
• when delivery must occur;
• who is responsible for transport;
• when risk transfers;
• how acceptance is confirmed; and
• what happens if performance is delayed.

These issues become particularly important in supplier and distribution relationships.

5. Notices

Article 81 expressly addresses notices in commercial matters and recognises several mechanisms, including electronic methods and any means agreed between the parties.

The contract should therefore clearly define:

• where notices must be sent;
• permitted delivery methods;
• valid email addresses;
• when a notice is treated as received; and
• whether particular notices require a formal method.

A business should not assume that an informal message sent to the wrong employee will necessarily satisfy a contractual notice requirement.

6. Evidence and Records

Article 91 states that commercial obligations, whatever their amount, may generally be established through different means of evidence unless the Law or agreement provides otherwise.

Good documentation still matters.

Businesses should retain relevant:

• signed agreements;
• purchase orders;
• invoices;
• delivery records;
• acceptance records;
• payment confirmations;
• correspondence;
• amendments;
• notices; and
• acknowledgements of debt.

The contract and the operational record should tell the same story.

7. Interest and Late Payment

Where interest is commercially relevant, the agreement should state clearly:

• whether interest applies;
• the applicable rate or method;
• the circumstances triggering it;
• the relevant due date; and
• whether any sector-specific restriction applies.

Businesses should avoid copying financing or interest clauses from foreign contracts without checking their compatibility with UAE law.

8. Dispute Resolution

A contract should clearly identify how disputes will be handled.

Depending on the transaction, this may include:

• negotiation;
• escalation;
• mediation;
• UAE court litigation; or
• arbitration.

An unclear dispute clause can create a preliminary dispute about where the main dispute should be heard.

Where arbitration is intended, the clause should address the relevant institution or rules, seat, language and other necessary procedural elements.

9. Governing Law and Jurisdiction

Particularly in cross-border transactions, governing-law and jurisdiction clauses should be drafted deliberately.

A Dubai company contracting with an overseas supplier should not assume that inserting the words “UAE law” resolves every jurisdictional question.

The relevant emirate, court system, arbitration agreement, free-zone position and mandatory laws may all need consideration.

How Does the Commercial Transactions Law Affect B2B Debt and Unpaid Invoices?

Unpaid invoices are one of the most common ways in which the Commercial Transactions Law becomes relevant to day-to-day business.

A creditor seeking payment should first establish:

1. the contractual obligation;
2. the amount due;
3. the maturity date;
4. proof that goods or services were provided;
5. any objections raised by the debtor;
6. applicable notice requirements;
7. any agreed interest provisions; and
8. the applicable dispute-resolution mechanism.

Businesses should also consider Article 92 early rather than waiting until a debt has remained unpaid for several years.

Where voluntary payment fails, a commercial creditor may need to consider negotiation, formal notice, settlement or appropriate recovery proceedings. Businesses dealing with overdue B2B receivables can review their position with debt collection lawyers in the UAE.

Practical Commercial Contract Review Checklist

Before signing or renewing an important commercial agreement, check:

1. Are the parties correctly identified?
2. Is the commercial activity clearly described?
3. Are goods, services and deliverables defined?
4. Are price and payment terms unambiguous?
5. Is there a specific payment due date?
6. Are delivery and acceptance procedures documented?
7. Does the contract explain how notices must be sent?
8. Are interest and late-payment provisions legally appropriate?
9. Are relevant records and evidence being retained?
10. Is liability allocated clearly?
11. Are termination rights defined?
12. Is the dispute-resolution mechanism workable?
13. Are governing law and jurisdiction clear?
14. Does another UAE law or regulator apply to the transaction?

A structured review before execution can be significantly easier than resolving uncertainty after payment or performance has failed. Businesses preparing new agreements can also use professional contract drafting services to align commercial terms with the applicable UAE framework.

When Should a Business Seek Legal Advice?

Not every commercial transaction requires extensive legal documentation.

Legal review becomes more important where the transaction involves:

• high financial value;
• extended credit or payment periods;
• recurring supply obligations;
• exclusivity;
• distribution arrangements;
• cross-border parties;
• complex termination rights;
• guarantees;
• financing;
• regulatory requirements; or
• significant dispute exposure.

If a disagreement has already developed, the contract should be reviewed before significant enforcement steps are taken.

A payment dispute, for example, may involve contractual rights, limitation periods, evidential issues and procedural requirements at the same time.

Where a dispute cannot be resolved commercially, commercial litigation lawyers can assess the agreement, supporting evidence and available enforcement options.

Al Ramsy Advocates advises businesses on contracts, commercial obligations, payment disputes and wider business law matters in the UAE.

Frequently Asked Questions

What Is the Current Commercial Transactions Law in the UAE?

The current federal framework is Federal Decree-Law No. 50 of 2022 Concerning Promulgating the Commercial Transactions Law, which entered into force on 2 January 2023 and replaced Federal Law No. 18 of 1993.

What Is the Limitation Period for a Commercial Claim in the UAE?

Article 92 provides a five-year period for cases relating to obligations between merchants from the date the obligation becomes due, where the statutory conditions apply and unless a shorter period is provided by law.

The period applicable to a specific claim depends on its legal classification and any specialised legislation.

Does the UAE Commercial Transactions Law Allow Interest?

The Law contains provisions governing interest on commercial loans and certain monetary commercial obligations. Under Article 72, interest on a commercial loan may be agreed contractually. Where no rate is specified, the statutory provision refers to the prevailing market rate subject to a 9% ceiling.

Is Compound Interest Allowed Under UAE Commercial Transactions Law?

Article 88 provides that a creditor may not claim compound interest, meaning interest on accumulated interest, or claim it as complementary compensation. Banking and financing matters may also engage other legislation and relevant judicial decisions.

Are Electronic Commercial Contracts Recognised in the UAE?

Yes. Article 10 expressly recognises commercial contracts and transactions conducted through modern means of technology and provides that they are generally subject to the same rules applicable to equivalent physical transactions, subject to applicable legislation.

For businesses establishing or reviewing a DIFC structure, the Companies Law must also be considered together with applicable regulations, including the updated Prescribed Company regime introduced in 2026.

Key Takeaways

• The DIFC Companies Law principally recognises Private Companies and Public Companies as company types incorporated under the Law.
• A Private Company generally has between one and 50 shareholders.
• A Private Company has no statutory minimum share capital under the Companies Law.
• A Public Company must maintain issued and allotted share capital of at least US$100,000, subject to the requirements of the Law.
• DIFC directors are subject to expressly codified statutory duties.
• The Prescribed Company Regulations 2026 materially changed the framework governing DIFC Prescribed Companies.

What Is the DIFC Companies Law?

The DIFC Companies Law is the principal legislation governing companies incorporated within the Dubai International Financial Centre.

The current framework is anchored in DIFC Law No. 5 of 2018, together with the Companies Regulations, Operating Law and specialist regulations applying to particular structures.

Official DIFC Companies Law
Read or download the official consolidated text of DIFC Law No. 5 of 2018 from the Dubai International Financial Centre.

Download the Official DIFC Companies Law PDF

The Law addresses matters including:

• company incorporation;
• legal personality;
• company classifications;
• shares and share capital;
• shareholder rights;
• directors and their duties;
• meetings and resolutions;
• company accounts;
• corporate transactions; and
• mergers and restructurings.

DIFC company-law requirements should be determined from the applicable DIFC legislation and regulations rather than assuming that the corporate rules of another jurisdiction apply.

What Types of Companies Can Be Formed Under DIFC Companies Law?

Article 8 of the DIFC Companies Law identifies two principal types of company:

• Private Company
• Public Company

A foreign company may also register in DIFC as a Recognised Company where the applicable statutory requirements are satisfied.

The distinction between these structures matters because shareholder limits, capital requirements, governance obligations and public-offer rules differ.

Private Company

A Private Company must have at least one shareholder and generally no more than 50 shareholders, subject to the statutory exceptions contained in the Law.

Its name must end in “Limited” or “Ltd.”

Private Companies may be suitable for privately held operating businesses, investment structures and corporate groups that do not require the framework associated with a Public Company.

Public Company

A Public Company must have at least one shareholder, but the Companies Law does not impose the same 50-shareholder maximum that applies to Private Companies.

Its name must end in “Public Limited Company” or “PLC.”

Public Companies are subject to additional requirements, including minimum capital and governance obligations. A Public Company must have at least two directors and at least one secretary.

Where a company is considering the public offering of securities or other capital-markets activity, the Companies Law should also be considered alongside applicable DFSA and securities requirements.

Recognised Company

A Recognised Company is different from incorporating a new DIFC Private or Public Company.

Under the Companies Law, a foreign company may register as a Recognised Company where the applicable requirements are satisfied.

This structure may be relevant when an overseas company wants to establish a presence in DIFC without incorporating a separate DIFC subsidiary.

Private Company vs Public Company vs Prescribed Company

A Prescribed Company should not be treated as a completely separate third company classification equivalent to Private Companies and Public Companies.

Private Company and Public Company are the principal company classifications under Article 8 of the Companies Law. A Prescribed Company is a specialist regime established under Article 132 and the applicable Prescribed Company Regulations.

The Companies Law allows parts of the wider corporate framework to be modified through regulations for particular prescribed types of companies.

What Changed for DIFC Prescribed Companies in 2026?

The DIFC Prescribed Company framework changed significantly in 2026.

Older guidance commonly referred to eligibility based on categories such as Qualifying Applicants, Qualifying Purposes and specific DIFC or GCC nexus requirements.

Those rules should not automatically be treated as the current eligibility framework.

The Prescribed Company Regulations 2026 came into force on 24 July 2026 and broadened access to the regime while introducing stronger administration and oversight requirements.

The Previous Position

Earlier Prescribed Company rules focused heavily on whether a proposed structure satisfied specified eligibility categories.

As a result, older articles may still describe Prescribed Companies primarily through qualifying-applicant and qualifying-purpose tests.

The Current Position

Under the 2026 framework, the previous eligibility gate based on qualifying applicant, qualifying purpose and nexus requirements was removed.

For a non-exempt Prescribed Company, the revised framework places greater responsibility on an appointed Corporate Service Provider.

Prescribed Companies remain specialist structures rather than ordinary operating companies. Their permitted activities and operational features remain subject to the applicable regulations.

What Does This Mean for Businesses?

For businesses considering a Prescribed Company, the assessment should focus on questions such as:

• What is the commercial purpose of the proposed entity?
• Will the company operate as a passive holding or special-purpose vehicle?
• Does it fall within an exempt category?
• Is a Corporate Service Provider required?
• Where will the registered office be maintained?
• Do the proposed activities remain within the permitted scope?
• Does the structure involve regulated financial services, funds or securities?

A Prescribed Company therefore should not be selected simply because it appears to offer a lighter or lower-cost structure. Its legal purpose and regulatory limitations should first match the intended use.

What Are the Main Requirements for a DIFC Private Company?

Shareholders

A DIFC Private Company must have at least one shareholder and generally no more than 50 shareholders, subject to specific exceptions provided by the Companies Law.

Share Capital

A Private Company has no statutory minimum share capital under Article 35 of the Companies Law.

However, the absence of a statutory minimum does not mean that capital structure can be ignored.

The company should still consider:

• issued share capital;
• ownership proportions;
• different share classes;
• voting rights;
• economic rights;
• future investment; and
• transfer restrictions.

These matters may need to be reflected in the Articles of Association and any shareholders’ agreement.

Directors

A Private Company must have at least one director.

A director must also meet the statutory eligibility requirements, including being a natural person aged at least 18 and not being disqualified from acting as a director.

Meetings and Governance

A Private Company is not automatically required by the Companies Law to hold an Annual General Meeting unless its Articles of Association require one.

That flexibility makes constitutional drafting especially important.

Shareholder approval thresholds, reserved matters, director powers and decision-making procedures should be considered when the structure is established rather than only after a dispute arises.

Businesses establishing a new DIFC entity may therefore benefit from obtaining advice from business setup lawyers before the incorporation documents and governance arrangements are finalised.

What Are the Main Requirements for a DIFC Public Company?

A Public Company is subject to a more prescriptive framework.

Key requirements include:

• at least one shareholder;
• issued and allotted share capital of at least US$100,000, excluding treasury shares;
• at least two directors;
• at least one secretary; and
• compliance with the applicable AGM requirements.

A Public Company must generally hold an Annual General Meeting within six months after the end of its financial year, subject to the detailed requirements of the Companies Law.

The Companies Law also contains rules relating to payment of share capital.

Where the company is considering public fundraising, securities issuance or admission to trading, additional regulatory requirements may apply beyond the Companies Law itself.

How Is a Company Incorporated Under DIFC Companies Law?

One or more persons may apply to the DIFC Registrar to incorporate a company, subject to the requirements of the Companies Law and applicable regulations.

The incorporation application must include the required information and the proposed Articles of Association.

The Articles must be in English and identify whether the company is a Private Company or Public Company.

They cannot contain provisions that are inconsistent with DIFC law.

Once incorporated, a DIFC company has a legal personality separate from its shareholders.

That means the company’s liabilities are generally liabilities of the company rather than personal liabilities of its shareholders or officers, except where applicable law provides otherwise.

Before incorporation, founders should normally determine:

1. the intended business activity;
2. the appropriate company type and licence;
3. ownership and share classes;
4. board composition;
5. shareholder and director decision-making powers;
6. reserved matters;
7. constitutional arrangements; and
8. any sector-specific or DFSA requirements.

The legal structure should therefore be designed around the company’s intended operations rather than treated as a registration exercise alone.

What Duties Do DIFC Company Directors Have?

The DIFC Companies Law expressly codifies duties owed by directors to the company.

The principal duties include:

Duty to Act Within Powers

A director must act in accordance with the company’s constitutional framework and exercise powers only for the purposes for which they were granted.

Duty to Promote the Success of the Company

Directors must exercise their powers in a manner consistent with their statutory duties to the company.

Duty to Exercise Independent Judgement

A director should exercise independent judgement rather than simply follow the instructions of another shareholder, officer or interested party.

Duty to Exercise Reasonable Care, Skill and Diligence

Directors are expected to exercise the care, skill and diligence required by the statutory standard.

Duty to Avoid Conflicts of Interest

A director must address situations in which personal interests may conflict with the interests of the company.

Duty Not to Accept Benefits from Third Parties

The Companies Law restricts directors from accepting certain benefits arising because of their position.

Duty to Declare Interests

Directors may be required to disclose interests in proposed or existing transactions and arrangements.

For boards, this means corporate governance should document not only the final decision but also, where relevant, how authority, conflicts and decision-making procedures were addressed.

Businesses reviewing board procedures, director responsibilities or approval frameworks may also require specialist corporate governance services.

What Corporate Records and Accounts Must DIFC Companies Maintain?

DIFC companies remain subject to ongoing obligations after incorporation.

The Companies Law requires companies to maintain accounting records sufficient to show and explain their transactions and financial position.

Accounting records are generally required to be retained for at least six years, subject to any applicable regulatory modification.

Directors must also prepare accounts for each financial year in accordance with the relevant requirements.

The accounts must comply with the applicable accounting standards and present the financial position of the company as required by the Law.

The precise audit, circulation and filing requirements may vary depending on:

• company classification;
• applicable regulations;
• available statutory exemptions; and
• whether a specialist regime applies.

Prescribed Companies require particular attention because the Prescribed Company Regulations contain their own requirements and exemptions.

How Does Whistleblower Protection Work in DIFC?

Whistleblower protection in DIFC should not be described solely as a Companies Law requirement.

The DIFC Operating Law No. 7 of 2018 contains statutory protections for qualifying disclosures made within its scope.

The legislation provides protection in specified circumstances where a person makes a qualifying disclosure to an appropriate recipient.

There is also a separate whistleblowing framework for businesses regulated by the Dubai Financial Services Authority.

The DFSA regime applies to DFSA-regulated entities and requires relevant firms to maintain appropriate whistleblowing policies and procedures.

A non-regulated DIFC company and a DFSA-regulated entity should therefore not be assumed to have identical whistleblowing obligations.

How Should a Business Choose a DIFC Corporate Structure?

Choosing the appropriate DIFC structure begins with understanding what the entity is intended to do.

An operating business employing staff has different requirements from a passive holding company.

A company owned by two founders also presents different governance issues from a business planning external investment or wider capital raising.

Important factors include:

Business Activity

Will the company conduct operating activities, hold investments or act primarily as a special-purpose vehicle?

Ownership

How many shareholders will there be?

Will the structure require different share classes, voting rights or reserved matters?

Capital Strategy

Will the company remain privately funded, or could external investment or wider fundraising become relevant?

Management

Who will sit on the board?

How will authority be divided between directors and shareholders?

Regulation

Does the proposed activity require DFSA authorisation or another form of regulatory approval?

Group Structure

Will the DIFC entity own subsidiaries, investments, intellectual property or other assets?

Future Transactions

Could the company need to accommodate:

• investment;
• a joint venture;
• an acquisition;
• a share transfer;
• restructuring; or
• an eventual exit?

Where the structure also involves commercial agreements, operational arrangements or wider UAE business obligations, business law advice may need to be considered alongside the DIFC corporate framework.

Practical DIFC Structuring Checklist

Before establishing or restructuring a DIFC company:

1. Define the commercial purpose.
   Determine whether the entity will operate a business, hold assets or perform a specialist function.
2. Identify the correct legal structure.
   Consider whether the requirements point toward a Private Company, Public Company, Prescribed Company or registration of a foreign company.
3. Map ownership and control.
   Decide who will own the company, how voting will work and which matters require shareholder or board approval.
4. Review regulatory overlays.
   Consider whether DFSA authorisation or another regulatory regime applies.
5. Prepare the governance framework.
   Align the Articles, shareholders’ agreement and corporate approval processes.
6. Consider future transactions.
   The structure should be capable of supporting investment, restructuring and exit where these are reasonably anticipated.
7. Plan ongoing compliance.
   Account for corporate records, financial statements, filings and any specialist requirements applying to the chosen entity.

How Legal Advice Can Support DIFC Structuring

The DIFC Companies Law establishes the statutory framework, but selecting and documenting the appropriate structure depends on the company’s ownership, commercial activity, governance model and future plans.

Legal advice can assist businesses with:

• choosing an appropriate DIFC entity;
• reviewing incorporation requirements;
• drafting Articles of Association;
• preparing shareholders’ agreements;
• structuring board and shareholder powers;
• reviewing director duties;
• implementing governance procedures;
• restructuring existing entities; and
• assessing related commercial arrangements.

Al Ramsy Advocates provides corporate legal services in the UAE for businesses reviewing company structures, governance documents and corporate transactions, including matters involving DIFC entities.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is a DIFC company an LLC?

The current DIFC Companies Law does not use LLC as the principal Article 8 company classification.

Companies incorporated under Article 8 are principally classified as Private Companies or Public Companies.

How Many Shareholders Can a DIFC Private Company Have?

A Private Company must have at least one shareholder and generally no more than 50 shareholders, subject to specific exceptions contained in the Companies Law.

What Is the Minimum Capital for a DIFC Company?

A DIFC Private Company has no statutory minimum share capital under the Companies Law.

A Public Company must maintain issued and allotted share capital, excluding treasury shares, of at least US$100,000.

What Is a DIFC Prescribed Company?

A DIFC Prescribed Company is a specialist company operating under Article 132 of the Companies Law and the applicable Prescribed Company Regulations.

Under the current framework, it is generally used for holding and special-purpose structures rather than ordinary operating activities.

Does Every DIFC Company Follow DFSA Rules?

No.

The DFSA regulates financial services and other specified regulated activities within DIFC.

Incorporating a company in DIFC does not automatically mean that every activity of the company is regulated by the DFSA.

Where a company conducts regulated financial services or falls within a DFSA-administered regime, additional regulatory obligations may apply.

UAE gratuity law entitles a foreign full-time private-sector employee who completes one or more years of continuous service to an end-of-service gratuity calculated on basic wage: 21 days’ wage for each of the first five years and 30 days’ wage for each year after that, capped at two years’ total wages.

AlRamsy Advocates & Legal Consultancy Gratuity Calculator

What Is End-of-Service Gratuity in the UAE?

UAE gratuity law entitles a foreign full-time private-sector employee who completes one or more years of continuous service to an end-of-service gratuity calculated on basic wage: 21 days’ wage for each of the first five years and 30 days’ wage for each year after that, capped at two years’ total wages.

The rule sits in Article 51 of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 on the Regulation of Employment Relations, in force since 2 February 2022, and the employer must pay it, along with every other outstanding entitlement, within 14 days of the contract ending.

This guide applies to the private sector in the United Arab Emirates under federal law. DIFC and ADGM operate their own employment regimes and are covered separately below.

UAE Gratuity Rules Under Article 51 of the Labour Law

Article 51 of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 provides that a foreign full-time worker who has completed one or more years of continuous service is entitled, on the end of service, to an end-of-service gratuity calculated on the basic wage as follows: the wage of 21 days for each year of the first five years of service, and the wage of 30 days for each year in excess of that. The article adds two limits that decide most disputes. The total gratuity may not exceed two years’ wages. And days of absence from work without pay are not counted in the duration of service.

Three things follow that people routinely get wrong.

The calculation runs on basic wage, not the salary you actually receive. Housing, transport, and other allowances are excluded, which is why a package of AED 20,000 with a basic of AED 10,000 produces gratuity on AED 10,000.

The entitlement is not conditional on why you left. The article grants the gratuity on completion of one year of continuous service and says nothing about resignation reducing it.

The two-year cap bites only on very long service. Using the 30-day monthly divisor, the 21 and 30 day tiers reach 24 months of basic wage after 25.5 years of service, not 24 years. The statutory ceiling is two years’ wages, so its application also depends on the wage used for the cap.

Who this applies to: foreign employees in the UAE private sector, on the mainland and in most free zones. UAE nationals, and GCC nationals covered by the applicable pension-extension arrangements, fall under pension and social-security rules rather than the ordinary foreign-worker formula.

Who Is Eligible for Gratuity in the UAE?

You are eligible if you are a foreign private-sector employee who has completed at least one year of continuous service with the same employer. Below one year there is no gratuity entitlement. Above one year, partial years are paid pro rata, so an employee leaving at three years and four months is paid for three years plus four months.

Practical note: approved paid leave counts towards service and should not be treated as unpaid absence. Ask for the service period in writing, in days, before you sign anything.

How to Calculate Gratuity Under UAE Labour Law?

Take your last basic monthly wage, divide it by 30 to get a daily wage, multiply that daily wage by 21 for each of the first five years of service, then by 30 for every year beyond five, and add the two together. Apply the two-year cap only if the result exceeds 24 months of wages.

1. Confirm your basic wage. Read it off the payslip or the MOHRE contract, not the offer letter’s total package.
2. Work out the daily wage. Basic monthly wage divided by 30.
3. Establish the service period. From the start date to the last working day, minus any unpaid absence.
4. Apply the first tier. 21 days for each of the first five years, pro-rated for a partial year.
5. Apply the second tier. 30 days for each year after the fifth, pro-rated.
6. Check the cap. The total may not exceed two years’ wages.

Worked example, four years of service on AED 12,000 basic. Daily wage is 12,000 divided by 30, which is AED 400. Four years in the first tier gives 21 times 4, which is 84 days. Gratuity is 400 times 84, which is AED 33,600.

Worked example, nine years of service on AED 12,000 basic. The first five years give 21 times 5, which is 105 days. The remaining four years give 30 times 4, which is 120 days. Total 225 days, times AED 400, which is AED 90,000. Assuming total monthly wage is also AED 12,000, two years’ wages would be AED 288,000, so the cap does not apply.

Practical note: run your own figure before your employer sends you theirs. Arriving at a settlement meeting with a number you can defend changes the conversation entirely.

Visit our Gratuity Calculator for More Accurate Results: Click Here

UAE Gratuity Rules After Resignation

No. Under Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 an employee who resigns after one or more years of continuous service receives the same gratuity as one whose contract is terminated by the employer. The old rules that cut a resigning employee’s entitlement to one third or two thirds depending on length of service belonged to Federal Law No. 8 of 1980, which was repealed when the current law took effect on 2 February 2022. The one-third rule does not govern an exit under the current federal law; historical disputes may require the earlier law.

Two related points that are still live.

Notice period. Resigning without serving the notice in your contract does not forfeit your gratuity, but the employer may claim compensation in lieu of notice, which is commonly set against the final settlement. Our guide to the notice period under UAE labour law sets out the periods and how they are calculated.

Contract type. The current law replaced unlimited contracts with fixed-term contracts, so the old limited versus unlimited distinction no longer changes the gratuity formula, although it still appears in older employment paperwork. See limited versus unlimited contracts in the UAE for where the distinction still matters.

Who this applies to: any employee weighing up whether to resign before an anniversary. Since the tier changes at five years, resigning shortly before the fifth anniversary costs you the higher 30-day rate on the years that follow, not the gratuity you have already accrued.

Can an Employer Refuse to Pay Gratuity for Misconduct?

Article 51 grants the gratuity on completion of one year of continuous service and does not make it conditional on the reason for dismissal. Dismissal for one of the grounds in Article 44 ends the contract without notice, but it does not automatically extinguish an accrued gratuity in the way the repealed 1980 law allowed.

What an employer may legitimately do is deduct amounts due under the law or a court judgment, subject to Article 29 of Cabinet Resolution No. 1 of 2022. Notice compensation, loans and property-related deductions require a lawful basis and compliance with the applicable conditions; itemising a charge alone does not make it deductible.

When to speak to a lawyer: if a settlement offer shows gratuity as zero, or shows deductions you do not recognise, take advice before signing. A signed receipt or settlement can create evidential difficulties, although waivers contrary to statutory worker rights are void under Article 65. Our labour and employment lawyers review settlement statements against payroll evidence.

Gratuity for Part-Time, Flexible and Domestic Workers

Part-time and job-sharing employees receive a proportion of the full-time gratuity. Article 30 of Cabinet Resolution No. 1 of 2022, the Executive Regulation of the labour law, sets the calculation as the annual working hours in the employment contract divided by the annual working hours under a full-time contract, multiplied by 100, with the resulting percentage applied to the full-time end-of-service entitlement. The same article provides that end-of-service pay does not apply to temporary work models or to contracts of less than one year.

Domestic workers are not covered by Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021. They fall under Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2022 concerning Domestic Workers, as amended. Article 22 authorises Cabinet rules for calculating and paying gratuity but does not itself set a formula. Article 51’s 21/30-day formula therefore does not apply; any entitlement must be assessed under applicable domestic-worker rules, the contract and any preserved rights from earlier service.

Who this applies to: anyone on a part-time permit, a flexible work contract, a freelance arrangement, or a domestic worker visa. An independent freelancer is not automatically an employee entitled to gratuity. Check which law governs your contract before applying any calculator, including ours.

Gratuity Rules in UAE Free Zones, DIFC and ADGM

Federal gratuity law applies on the mainland and in most free zones, but the two financial free zones run their own employment regimes and their own end-of-service systems.

Practical note: applying an Article 51 calculator to a DIFC contract does not establish your DIFC entitlement. Check the jurisdiction named in your contract first. Our guide to DIFC employment law explains how the DIFC regime differs.

The UAE Alternative End-of-Service Benefits Savings Scheme

Since 1 November 2023, employers have been able to replace the accrued gratuity system with a funded savings scheme under Cabinet Resolution No. 96 of 2023. Participation is voluntary for the employer, but once an employee is enrolled, contributions replace the accrual of gratuity from that date forward.

The employer pays a monthly contribution into an accredited investment fund of 5.83% of the employee’s basic salary for employees with up to five years of service, and 8.33% for employees with more than five years. Employees may make voluntary additional contributions. Gratuity accrued before enrolment is preserved: it is calculated as at the enrolment date on the basic salary at that date, and remains payable by the employer. Financial free-zone authorities regulate arrangements within their own jurisdictions; DIFC and ADGM rules must be checked separately.

Who this applies to: employees whose employer has enrolled them in the scheme. If you are enrolled, your end-of-service payment is the preserved gratuity up to the enrolment date, plus whatever has accumulated in your fund account since.

Practical note: ask your employer in writing for the enrolment date and the preserved gratuity figure calculated at that date. That figure is the one to check against Article 51, and it becomes difficult to reconstruct years later.

UAE Labour Law: Final Settlement and Gratuity Payment Deadline

Article 53 of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 requires the employer to pay the worker’s wages and all other entitlements within 14 days of the date the contract ends. That deadline covers the whole final settlement, not the gratuity alone.

A UAE final settlement normally contains:

• End-of-service gratuity under Article 51
• Unpaid basic salary and allowances up to the last working day
• Payment for accrued but untaken annual leave calculated on basic wage under Article 29(9)
• Any payment in lieu of notice owed by whichever party did not serve it
• Repatriation or air ticket costs where the contract or the law provides for them
• Less any documented and itemised deductions

Practical note: visa cancellation and the final payment are separate processes. Do not accept “we will pay after cancellation” as a reason to miss the 14-day deadline, and keep a dated record of when you were asked to sign anything.

How to Claim Unpaid Gratuity in the UAE?

Start with a written demand, then file with MOHRE if it is not met. Under the amendments introduced by Federal Decree-Law No. 20 of 2023, MOHRE issues binding decisions on labour disputes valued up to AED 50,000; other unresolved larger claims are referred to the competent court, except disputes about non-compliance with a Ministry-approved settlement, which MOHRE may decide regardless of value. Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 extended the limitation period for employment claims from one year to two years from the end of the employment relationship, so a claim left for longer than two years is likely to be time-barred.

1. Send a written demand. Set out the start and end dates, the basic wage, the service period in years and days, and your calculation. Give a short deadline and keep proof of delivery.
2. Gather the evidence. Employment contract and any amendments, payslips showing the basic wage, WPS or bank records, proof of start and end dates, leave records distinguishing paid from unpaid, and the settlement statement you were offered.
3. File a complaint with MOHRE. Through the MOHRE website or app. The Ministry attempts settlement first. Filing this MOHRE complaint is free. Worker or heir claims not exceeding AED 100,000 are exempt from judicial fees under Article 55; professional representation and translation costs are separate. Free-zone employees should use the route required by their authority.
4. Receive the decision or the referral. MOHRE may issue an enforceable decision for claims up to AED 50,000 and disputes over non-compliance with a Ministry-approved settlement regardless of value. Either party has 15 working days from notification to challenge it before the competent Court of First Instance; filing suspends enforcement, and the court’s judgment is final. Other unresolved claims go to court.
5. Take advice before the court stage. Deductions, contested termination and disputed wage structures are where cases are won or lost on documents.

Our step-by-step guide to filing a MOHRE labour complaint covers the process and the document checklist, and the same route applies to an unpaid salary complaint.

When to speak to a lawyer: before you sign a full and final settlement, if your employer disputes the basic wage or the service period, or if the claim is above AED 50,000 and heading to court. Al Ramsy Advocates acts for both employees and employers in end-of-service disputes across the UAE.

UAE Gratuity Law: Frequently Asked Questions

A power of attorney (POA) is a written legal document in which one person (the principal) authorises another person (the agent, also called the attorney-in-fact) to act on their behalf in legal, financial, property or administrative matters.

Al Ramsy Advocates & Legal Consultancy POA Legal Services

In the UAE a power of attorney is only recognised by courts, banks and government departments once it has been notarised before a public or private notary, and the agent may only do what the document expressly permits. This guide explains the meaning of a POA, the types used in the UAE, how to make one in Dubai, what it costs, and how to cancel it.

The content on this page applies to the United Arab Emirates. Procedure is described for Dubai; other Emirates are covered separately below.

What Is a Power of Attorney (POA) in Dubai?

A power of attorney in Dubai is a notarised authorisation that lets a named agent sign, appear, negotiate or transact in the principal’s name, within the limits written into the document.

Under UAE law the relationship is a form of agency (wakala) governed by the Civil Transactions Law, Federal Decree-Law No. 25 of 2025, which came into force on 1 June 2026 and replaced Federal Law No. 5 of 1985, with the agency contract governed by Articles 866–903.

The formalities of signing and attesting the document are governed by Federal Decree-Law No. 20 of 2022 Regulating the Notary Profession.

POA Full Form and Legal Meaning

POA stands for “power of attorney”. The word “attorney” here means an authorised representative, not a lawyer; a person with the required legal capacity can be appointed as an agent under a UAE power of attorney. Dubai Courts currently states 21 lunar years for civil POAs and 18 years for commercial POAs. The two people in every POA are:

Who this applies to: anyone who needs a task done in their name when they cannot, or would rather not, attend personally.

How a Power of Attorney Works Under UAE Law?

A UAE power of attorney works on strict wording: the agent’s authority is limited to the matters stated in the notarised text and the necessary ancillary powers recognised by the nature of the matter, prevailing custom and the parties’ common intention. Three consequences follow.

First, a power that requires special authority must be written in, so “manage my affairs” does not authorise a property sale; Article 870 specifically requires a special agency for acts such as sale, mortgage, settlement, arbitration and court pleading.

Second, an act outside the written scope can be challenged as unauthorised and may not bind the principal.

Third, the receiving authority (a court, the Dubai Land Department, a bank) decides whether the wording is sufficient for the transaction in front of it, and each applies its own checklist.

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Practical note: before drafting, ask the authority that will receive the POA what wording it requires. Banks and the DLD in particular have wording they expect to see.

Who Should Be Your Agent, and What Can an Agent Not Do?

Choose an agent you would trust with the specific asset or decision in the POA, who is available in the UAE when the act needs to be done, and who understands that they must act in your interest. An agent under a UAE POA cannot act outside the written powers, cannot delegate the authority to someone else unless the POA expressly allows substitution, and cannot use the POA after learning that it has been revoked or after the principal’s death. Articles 879 and 897–903 govern substitution and termination of the agency.

Warning signs of POA misuse, drawn from the situations that reach litigation, include an agent who resists giving an account of what was done, transactions with the agent’s own relatives, and pressure on the principal to sign a general POA when a special one would do.

When to speak to a lawyer: if an agent has already acted beyond the authority you gave, or you suspect funds or property have moved without your knowledge, take advice before contacting the agent, because the sequence of revocation and notification matters.

Al Ramsy Advocates’ litigation lawyers handle POA misuse disputes before the UAE courts.

Types of Power of Attorney in Dubai

The UAE recognises two working categories of power of attorney: a general power of attorney, which grants broad authority across many matters, and a special (or specific) power of attorney, which grants authority for one defined transaction or purpose.

Article 869 also permits an agency to be conditional or deferred to a future time. Labels used in other countries, such as durable, lasting, enduring or springing POAs, do not exist as separate instruments under UAE law.

General Power of Attorney in Dubai

A general power of attorney authorises the agent to deal with a wide range of the principal’s affairs, typically banking, contracts, government paperwork and representation before authorities.

It is convenient for someone leaving the country for a period, but authorities scrutinise it closely, and for high-value acts such as selling property or litigating a case the receiving body will usually insist on express, specific wording.

Special Power of Attorney in Dubai

A special power of attorney authorises one clearly defined act or set of acts: selling a named property, representing the principal in a named court case, signing a particular contract, or completing a specific company procedure.

Because the scope is narrow, it is the format courts, the DLD and banks accept most readily, and it limits the damage if the agent oversteps.

General vs Special Power of Attorney: Which Should You Use?

Practical note: if you can describe the task in one sentence, you need a special POA. If you cannot, you need legal advice before you need a general one.

Is There a Durable, Lasting or Enduring Power of Attorney in the UAE?

No. A UAE power of attorney is an agency instrument and depends on the principal continuing to have legal capacity; it is not designed to survive the principal’s incapacity in the way a UK lasting power of attorney or a US durable POA does.

Where a person can no longer manage their affairs, the family will generally need to apply to the competent UAE court for guardianship or a similar order rather than rely on a POA; in Dubai, Dubai Courts provides a procedure for determining legal competence and appointing a guardian.

Anyone planning for incapacity in the UAE should look at a registered will alongside any POA, since a POA ends on death and a will begins there.

How to Get a Power of Attorney in Dubai? (Step-by-Step Legal Process)

To get a power of attorney in Dubai you draft the document, prepare identification, sign it before a public notary at Dubai Courts or a licensed private notary (in person or through the e-notary service), and then present the notarised POA to the authority that will rely on it.

A locally issued POA does not need further attestation for use inside the UAE; a POA signed abroad does.

1. Decide the type and purpose. Special for one transaction, general for ongoing administration. Write down exactly what the agent must be able to do and for which authority.
2. Draft the POA. Under Article 5 of Federal Decree-Law No. 20 of 2022 the notarial instrument is in Arabic, with foreign-language execution permitted subject to the Minister’s conditions; in practice Dubai notaries work from an Arabic or bilingual text. A lawyer-drafted POA matches the wording the receiving authority expects; a template downloaded from another jurisdiction usually does not.
3. Gather documents. Principal’s passport and Emirates ID (for residents), the agent’s passport or ID copy, and any supporting documents for the transaction: title deed for property, trade licence and resolution for a company, case details for litigation.
4. Book and attend notarisation. Article 17 of the same law requires the parties to appear before the notary in person, and Article 18 allows the notary to complete the transaction through IT means without personal appearance; Dubai Courts provides online ratification through its website and smart electronic notary channels; prior registration is required, and online attestation currently requires a valid Emirates ID. The notary verifies identity, capacity and that the wording is lawful.
5. Collect the notarised POA and check that the agent’s name, ID number and each power are correct before leaving; corrections after issue mean a new instrument.
6. Present and register where required. Courts file it with the case, the DLD checks it at transfer, banks register it internally.

For a broader walkthrough of Dubai notarisation, including which documents a notary will and will not attest, see our guide on how to notarise a document in Dubai.

When Do You Need a Power of Attorney in Dubai and the UAE?

You need a power of attorney whenever a task must be completed in your name and you cannot, or do not want to, appear in person: buying or selling property, appointing a lawyer for a court case, running a company’s affairs, dealing with a bank, or handling government paperwork while you are outside the UAE. The most common situations are set out below, each of which has its own wording requirements.

Power of Attorney for Court Cases and Litigation in the UAE

To have a lawyer or representative appear for you in a UAE court, you must give them a power of attorney that expressly grants litigation powers.

A general “represent me” clause is not enough; UAE courts expect the POA to state the authority to file, defend, appeal, settle, receive judgments and, where relevant, to swear oaths or acknowledge claims. For a divorce or personal status matter the POA should refer to the personal status courts and the specific relief sought.

Who this applies to: anyone appointing an advocate in a civil, commercial, criminal, labour or family case in the UAE, and anyone abroad who needs a relative or advocate to act for them in a UAE case.

Al Ramsy Advocates’ litigation team prepares litigation POAs as part of taking on a case, and our divorce lawyers do the same for personal status matters.

Power of Attorney for Property in Dubai

A property POA in Dubai must be a special power of attorney that identifies the property (plot or unit number, community, project) and states the exact power: to sell, buy, mortgage, lease, register or transfer.

The Dubai Land Department checks the wording against the transaction before it will register a transfer made by an agent, and a sale requires special authority rather than a general management power.

The DLD states that a POA used for sale, mortgage or gift is valid for two years, while a POA used for purchase is valid for five years from notarisation.

Practical note: if the property is in another Emirate, the land or municipality department of that Emirate applies, and its requirements differ. Ask before drafting.

Our guide to real estate law in the UAE covers the registration process an agent will be completing, and our real estate lawyers draft and review property POAs for buyers, sellers and overseas owners.

Power of Attorney for Business, Company and Bank Matters

A company in the UAE grants a power of attorney through its manager or board, within the powers set out in its Memorandum and Articles of Association, so the notary will ask to see the constitutional documents and a resolution before attesting a corporate POA.

For bank accounts, a limited POA naming the bank, the account and the permitted operations (deposit, withdrawal, transfers up to a stated amount) is what most UAE banks will accept; banks also run their own internal registration of the POA and may reject wording they consider too broad. Our corporate lawyers prepare corporate and banking POAs aligned with the company’s licence and constitutional documents.

Who this applies to: shareholders and managers appointing a representative, foreign parent companies operating a UAE branch, and individuals who need someone to operate an account while they are abroad.

Which Authorities Recognise a Power of Attorney in Dubai?

A notarised UAE power of attorney is recognised by Dubai Courts, the Dubai Land Department, the Department of Economy and Tourism (for licensing), GDRFA (visa and residency), the RTA (vehicles), Dubai Municipality, the free zone authorities and UAE banks, each subject to its own wording and verification checks.

Recognition is not automatic acceptance: the authority reads the powers granted against the transaction requested, and a mismatch is the most common reason a POA is turned away at the counter.

Practical note: present the original notarised POA or its verifiable electronic original, rather than an uncertified copy, and a certified Arabic translation if the instrument was executed in another language.

Can You Make a Power of Attorney Online in Dubai?

Yes. Federal Decree-Law No. 20 of 2022 expressly allows notaries to complete transactions through IT systems without the parties’ personal appearance (Article 18), and gives an electronically notarised document the same probative force as a paper instrument (Article 23).

Dubai Courts offers remote notarisation through its online channels, and the federal Ministry of Justice operates a Digital Power of Attorney service through its website and app using UAE Pass; the Ministry states that the remote service can be used by eligible customers residing inside or outside the UAE.

Who this applies to: users who meet the digital identity requirements of the relevant service. Dubai Courts requires a valid Emirates ID for online attestation, while the Ministry of Justice Digital Power of Attorney uses UAE Pass and is available to eligible customers inside or outside the UAE. A principal who cannot use the digital service must follow the foreign attestation route below.

How Much Does a Power of Attorney Cost in Dubai?

The cost of a power of attorney in Dubai is made up of the government notary fee, which is fixed by Cabinet Resolution No. 19 of 2024, plus any legal drafting, translation and attestation charges.

Dubai Courts currently charges AED 100 per party for POA ratification, plus AED 20 in Knowledge and Innovation fees. The table below combines published government fees with typical 2026 UAE market ranges for professional services.

What increases the cost: multiple powers in one instrument, property descriptions and transaction-specific wording, corporate POAs that need resolutions, foreign attestation chains, and urgent turnaround.

Is a Foreign Power of Attorney Valid in Dubai?

A power of attorney signed outside the UAE is not usable in Dubai until it has been legalised in the country where it was signed, attested by the UAE embassy or consulate there, attested again by the UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA) after arrival, and translated into Arabic by a licensed legal translator.

The UAE is not a party to the Hague Apostille Convention, so an apostille alone does not replace this chain.

1. Sign the POA before a notary in the country of origin.
2. Have it attested by that country’s foreign ministry or designated authority (for India, the Ministry of External Affairs; for the UK, the FCDO legalisation office; for the US, the relevant Secretary of State and then the US Department of State), subject to the issuing country’s document type and current legalisation requirements.
3. Have it legalised by the UAE embassy or consulate in that country.
4. On arrival in the UAE, attest it at MoFA.
5. Obtain a certified Arabic translation and present the original with the translation.

Practical note: the reverse also applies. A resident who needs a POA for property in India, Pakistan, the Philippines or elsewhere usually signs it at that country’s consulate in Dubai, following the consulate’s own format, rather than at a Dubai notary.

How Long Is a Power of Attorney Valid in the UAE, and How Do You Cancel It?

A UAE power of attorney remains valid until the expiry date written into it, until the specific task it was issued for is completed, until the principal revokes it, or until the principal or agent dies or loses legal capacity, subject to the termination rules in Articles 897–903 of Federal Decree-Law No. 25 of 2025. Some receiving authorities apply their own maximum age for a POA presented to them.

The Dubai Land Department states that a POA used for sale, mortgage or gift is valid for two years, while a POA used for purchase is valid for five years from notarisation.

To cancel a power of attorney in Dubai:

1. Sign a revocation deed before a public or private notary, referencing the original POA number and date.
2. Serve written notice of the revocation on the agent, keeping proof of delivery.
3. Notify every institution that holds a copy of the POA (banks, the DLD, the court, the company registrar) in writing.
4. Retrieve or cancel any originals or certified copies in circulation where possible.

Acts done by the agent before a third party learns of the revocation may still bind the principal, which is why step 3 is not optional.

When to speak to a lawyer: if the agent is uncooperative, holds original documents, or has an active transaction in progress, take advice on the order of the steps above before signing the revocation.

Does the Process Differ in Abu Dhabi, Sharjah and Other Emirates?

The governing laws are federal, so the meaning and effect of a power of attorney are the same across the UAE, but the notary service you attend is run by each Emirate’s judicial authority:

the Abu Dhabi Judicial Department in Abu Dhabi, the Sharjah Judicial Department’s notary services in Sharjah, and the federal Ministry of Justice notaries in the Emirates without their own judicial department; service channels, local procedures and fees may differ by Emirate.

A POA notarised in one Emirate is generally valid in the others, subject to the receiving authority’s transaction-specific checks.

Common Mistakes With a Power of Attorney in Dubai

The four mistakes that most often send a POA back to the notary are: using a foreign template that refers to concepts UAE authorities do not recognise; granting “all powers” language that the receiving authority then refuses; leaving a POA in force after the task is finished; and issuing a general POA when the transaction required a special one with the property or case identified.

How Al Ramsy Advocates Can Help With a Power of Attorney

Al Ramsy Advocates, a law firm in Dubai practising since 2000, drafts and reviews general and special powers of attorney, arranges notarisation including remote notarisation, manages the attestation of foreign POAs, prepares revocations, and represents principals and agents in POA disputes before the UAE courts.

If you are unsure which type of POA your matter needs, contact us for a confidential consultation and our team will direct the enquiry to the right practice area.

Power of Attorney in Dubai: Frequently Asked Questions

The 2024 amendments did not replace the UAE Labour Law or create an entirely new employment framework. Rules covering fixed-term contracts, working hours, probation, annual leave, maternity leave and end-of-service gratuity largely come from earlier legislation.

For employers and employees, the key distinction is between changes that became operational in January 2024 under an earlier 2023 amendment and the changes specifically introduced by Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 in August 2024.

What Changed in the UAE Labour Law in 2024?

The main UAE Labor Law Changes 2024 concerned the labour dispute process, the period for bringing employment claims and stronger penalties for specified labour-law violations.

The current Article 54 framework requires qualifying challenges to MOHRE decisions to be brought before the competent Court of First Instance, while the amended Article 60 substantially increases penalties for specified violations.

Which Law Introduced the UAE Labour Law Changes in 2024?

The principal amendments introduced in August 2024 came through Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024, which replaced the text of Articles 54 and 60 of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021.

Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024

The amendment concentrated on two areas:

• Article 54: individual labour disputes
• Article 60: penalties for specified violations of the Labour Law

It did not rewrite the complete UAE employment framework.

Employees or employers looking for the wider rules on contracts, salaries, working hours, leave, termination and gratuity should instead refer to the current UAE Labour Law.

When Did the 2024 Amendments Take Effect?

Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 took effect on 31 August 2024.

The Decree-Law was issued on 29 July 2024 and provided that it would come into force 30 days after publication in the Official Gazette. Contemporary legal analysis and the current amended framework confirm the 31 August 2024 effective date.

What Changed in the UAE Labour Dispute Process?

The 2024 amendment changed how certain MOHRE labour-dispute decisions are challenged and extended the time available for the court to decide those challenges.

An important distinction is that MOHRE’s authority to decide claims worth AED 50,000 or less was already introduced by an earlier 2023 amendment and became operational on 1 January 2024. Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 subsequently changed important parts of the review procedure.

MOHRE Decisions for Claims of AED 50,000 or Less

MOHRE may issue an enforceable decision in an individual labour dispute where the value of the claim is AED 50,000 or less.

The Ministry may also decide a dispute concerning failure by either party to comply with a previous amicable settlement decision issued by MOHRE, regardless of the value of the claim.

This authority came from Federal Decree-Law No. 20 of 2023 and became effective on 1 January 2024.

It should therefore not be described as a power first created by Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024.

Challenges Now Go to the Court of First Instance

Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 changed the court responsible for reviewing qualifying MOHRE labour-dispute decisions.

Under the earlier 2023 framework, a party could challenge the Ministry’s decision before the Court of Appeal.

Following the 2024 amendment, the case must instead be brought before the competent Court of First Instance. The new Decree-Law also required pending qualifying matters before Courts of Appeal to be transferred to the competent Court of First Instance, subject to the transitional rules.

This distinction matters because older online guidance may still refer employees and employers to the Court of Appeal.

What Is the Deadline for Challenging a MOHRE Decision?

Where Article 54’s statutory review process applies, the party must bring the case before the competent Court of First Instance within 15 working days from notification of the MOHRE decision.

Under the current process:

1. The case must be filed within 15 working days.
2. The court schedules a hearing within 3 working days from filing.
3. The court decides the case within 30 working days from the filing date.
4. The Court of First Instance judgment under this specific procedure is final.
5. Filing the case suspends implementation of the relevant MOHRE decision.

Employees and employers dealing with the filing stage can review the detailed MOHRE labour complaint process separately.

How Did the Labour Claim Limitation Period Change in 2024?

The 2024 amendment extended the limitation period for claims arising under the UAE Labour Law to two years from the date the employment relationship ends.

The current Article 54 provides that a claim concerning rights arising under the Labour Law will not be heard after two years from termination of the employment relationship.

What Was the Previous Limitation Rule?

Before the August 2024 amendment, the Labour Law contained a one-year limitation period, calculated from the maturity date of the right that was the subject of the claim.

The 2023 version of Article 54 stated that a claim could not be heard after one year from the maturity date of the relevant right.

Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 therefore made two important changes:

• It increased the period from one year to two years.
• It linked the current period to termination of the employment relationship.

When Does the Two-Year Period Start?

The current two-year period runs from termination of the employment relationship.

This is important because it differs from older wording that measured the limitation period from the date on which a particular right became due.

Employees and employers should therefore check the current Article 54 wording rather than relying on outdated explanations of the former one-year rule.

Why Does the Two-Year Period Matter?

For employees, the longer period provides additional time to assess and pursue qualifying claims involving matters such as unpaid employment rights, gratuity or final settlement disputes.

For employers, it creates a longer period of potential exposure after employment ends. Employment contracts, payroll documents, settlement calculations, disciplinary records and other relevant evidence should therefore be retained appropriately.

The current Labour Law also requires employers to maintain worker files and records for at least two years after the employee’s end of service.

The two-year limitation period should not be treated as a reason to delay taking action. Separate procedural deadlines can be much shorter, including the 15-working-day period for challenging certain MOHRE decisions.

What Penalties Increased Under the 2024 UAE Labour Law Amendments?

Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 increased the fines for specified labour-law violations to between AED 100,000 and AED 1 million.

The higher penalties are intended to strengthen compliance with employment and labour-market regulation.

Employing Workers Without the Required Permit

An employer may face the increased penalty where it employs a worker who does not have the legally required work permit.

Employers should therefore ensure that employment begins only under the correct permit and legal work arrangement.

Recruiting Workers and Leaving Them Without Work

The increased penalty also applies where an employer recruits or brings a worker into the UAE and then fails to provide the worker with employment.

This provision targets recruitment arrangements that do not result in the genuine employment represented to the worker or authorities.

Misusing Work Permits

Using a work permit for purposes other than those for which it was issued is another specified violation subject to the increased penalty range.

Businesses should ensure that the actual employment arrangement is consistent with the permit, employment contract and applicable MOHRE requirements.

Closing or Suspending a Business Without Settling Workers’ Rights

The amended Article 60 also addresses employers that close an establishment or suspend its operations without following the required procedures for settling employees’ rights.

A business closure does not remove existing obligations to employees.

Outstanding wages, end-of-service benefits and other employment entitlements must be addressed according to the applicable legal framework.

Unlawful Employment of Minors

The increased penalty framework also covers specified violations involving the unlawful employment or recruitment of juveniles and persons responsible for a minor who permit employment in breach of the Labour Law.

What Changed for Fictitious Employment and Fictitious Emiratisation?

The 2024 amendments introduced stronger criminal penalties for fictitious employment, including fictitious Emiratisation arrangements used to circumvent labour-market legislation or improperly obtain government benefits.

An employer involved in fictitious employment may face a fine ranging from AED 100,000 to AED 1 million, and the penalty can be multiplied according to the number of workers involved.

What Is Fictitious Employment in This Context?

Fictitious employment generally involves representing an employment relationship as genuine where the arrangement is instead being used to circumvent labour-market laws, regulations or decisions.

The amended Article 60 specifically addresses fictitious appointments connected with benefits, advantages or the avoidance of obligations arising under labour-market legislation.

Each allegation still needs to be assessed according to the actual employment arrangement and evidence.

How Are Penalties Applied Where Several Workers Are Involved?

Where the fictitious-employment offence involves several employees, the statutory penalty may be multiplied by the number of workers who were fictitiously appointed.

This means exposure can increase substantially where the conduct involves multiple employment records rather than one worker.

Can a Fictitious-Employment Case Be Settled Before Judgment?

The amended law allows MOHRE to settle a qualifying fictitious-employment offence at the employer’s request before a judgment is issued, subject to the statutory requirements.

The employer must pay at least 50% of the minimum prescribed fine and repay the value of government financial incentives received in connection with the fictitiously appointed employees.

Once the required settlement amount is paid, the criminal case may be extinguished in accordance with the provision. Criminal proceedings for this offence may only be initiated at the request of the Minister of Human Resources and Emiratisation or an authorised representative.

What Did Not Change in UAE Labour Law in 2024?

Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 did not create the main UAE rules governing employment contracts, normal working hours, annual leave, maternity leave, probation or traditional end-of-service gratuity.

Those rules were already part of the Labour Law framework established before the August 2024 amendment.

For example, the modern employment framework under Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 had already been in force since 2 February 2022.

This distinction matters because describing every feature of the current UAE Labour Law as a “2024 change” can give employers and employees an inaccurate understanding of when a particular right or obligation was introduced.

What Do the 2024 Labour Law Changes Mean for Employees?

For employees, the main practical effects of the 2024 amendments are the longer limitation period for labour claims, the changed court route for challenging certain MOHRE decisions and stronger penalties for serious labour-market violations.

Employees should pay particular attention to two different time limits:

• A qualifying claim under the Labour Law may fall within the current two-year limitation period measured from termination of employment.
• A challenge to a qualifying MOHRE decision under Article 54 must be brought before the competent Court of First Instance within 15 working days.

The existence of the two-year limitation period does not extend the much shorter deadline for challenging a MOHRE decision.

Employees should also keep employment contracts, salary evidence, final-settlement calculations, termination documents and correspondence where a dispute is likely.

What Do the 2024 Labour Law Changes Mean for Employers?

For employers, the amendments increase both regulatory exposure and the importance of accurate employment records.

Businesses should pay particular attention to:

• Using the correct work permits
• Ensuring recruitment reflects genuine employment
• Avoiding fictitious employment or Emiratisation arrangements
• Properly settling employees’ rights when operations close or are suspended
• Responding quickly to MOHRE decisions
• Retaining relevant employment and payroll records
• Reviewing potential labour claims over the current two-year limitation period

The increase of specified penalties to as much as AED 1 million makes employment compliance a significant financial as well as legal issue.

UAE Labour Law Legal Support for Employers and Employees

Al Ramsy Advocates advises employers and employees on UAE Labour Law, employment contract changes, termination, workplace disputes, MOHRE procedures, employee rights, and the practical impact of recent labour law amendments.

Explore Our Labour & Employment Services

Do the 2024 UAE Labour Law Amendments Apply in DIFC and ADGM?

The federal 2024 amendments do not automatically govern employment relationships in DIFC or ADGM, because both financial free zones operate separate employment-law regimes.

DIFC employment relationships are governed by the DIFC’s own employment framework. Businesses or employees within that jurisdiction should review the applicable DIFC Employment Law rather than automatically applying Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021.

ADGM is also exempt from the UAE Federal Labour Law for employment relationships within the scope of its own regime. The ADGM Employment Regulations 2024, effective from 1 April 2025, currently govern qualifying ADGM employers and employees.

The correct jurisdiction should therefore be established before applying a federal labour-law deadline, penalty or dispute procedure to a specific employment relationship.

Are the UAE Labour Law Changes Introduced in 2024 Still Relevant in 2026?

Yes. The amendments introduced by Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 remain part of the current amended UAE Labour Law framework in 2026.

They are therefore still relevant when assessing:

• Individual labour disputes
• Challenges to qualifying MOHRE decisions
• Limitation periods
• Work-permit violations
• Establishment closure obligations
• Fictitious employment
• Fictitious Emiratisation
• Applicable Article 60 penalties

The current consolidated version of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 expressly incorporates the amended provisions, including the current Article 60 penalties.

The fact that an amendment was introduced in 2024 does not mean it stopped applying when that calendar year ended.

When Should You Get Legal Advice About the 2024 Labour Law Changes?

Legal advice can be important where a dispute involves a MOHRE decision, a limitation deadline, significant financial claims, high-value penalties or allegations of fictitious employment.

For employees, legal assistance may be particularly relevant where:

• A MOHRE decision needs to be challenged
• A labour claim may be approaching a statutory deadline
• Salary, gratuity or final-settlement rights are disputed
• The applicable jurisdiction is unclear

Employers may need legal advice where:

• MOHRE has issued a binding decision
• A work-permit violation is alleged
• Fictitious employment or Emiratisation allegations arise
• The business is closing or suspending operations
• Significant employee claims remain unresolved
• Court proceedings have started

Need Advice on a UAE Labour Law Amendment or Dispute?

Al Ramsy Advocates advises employees, employers and businesses on UAE employment disputes, MOHRE proceedings, regulatory compliance and labour-law claims.

Frequently Asked Questions About UAE Labour Law Changes 2024

What Were the Main UAE Labour Law Changes in 2024?

The main changes introduced by Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 concerned the labour-dispute review process, the two-year limitation period for Labour Law claims, higher fines for specified violations and stronger penalties for fictitious employment.

The amendments took effect on 31 August 2024.

Which Law Introduced the UAE Labour Law Amendments in August 2024?

The amendments were introduced by Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024, which replaced Articles 54 and 60 of Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021.

When Did Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 Take Effect?

Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 took effect on 31 August 2024, 30 days after its publication in the Official Gazette.

Is the UAE Labour Claim Limitation Period Now Two Years?

Yes. Under the current Article 54 framework, claims concerning rights arising under the UAE Labour Law are not heard after two years from termination of the employment relationship.

Can MOHRE Decide Labour Claims of AED 50,000 or Less?

Yes. MOHRE can issue an enforceable decision where the value of an individual labour claim is AED 50,000 or less, as well as in disputes concerning failure to comply with an earlier amicable settlement decision regardless of the claim value.

This authority came from Federal Decree-Law No. 20 of 2023 and became operational on 1 January 2024; it was not first created by Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024.

Which Court Reviews a Qualifying MOHRE Labour Decision?

Following the 2024 amendment, a qualifying challenge is brought before the competent Court of First Instance, rather than the Court of Appeal used under the previous framework.

How Long Do I Have to Challenge a MOHRE Decision?

Where the Article 54 challenge process applies, the case must generally be filed before the competent Court of First Instance within 15 working days from notification of the MOHRE decision.

The Court of First Instance judgment under this specific procedure is final.

Did UAE Annual Leave Change Under Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024?

No. Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 did not introduce the UAE’s main annual-leave rules.

Those entitlements form part of the wider employment framework established before the August 2024 amendment.

Did UAE Working Hours Change Under the 2024 Amendment?

No. Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024 did not change the general UAE Labour Law framework for normal working hours.

The amendment focused primarily on Articles 54 and 60 concerning labour disputes and penalties.

Did Gratuity Rules Change Under Federal Decree-Law No. 9 of 2024?

No. The Decree-Law did not replace or introduce the traditional end-of-service gratuity rules.

The principal 2024 changes covered dispute procedures, limitation periods and penalties rather than the general gratuity calculation framework.

Are the 2024 UAE Labour Law Amendments Still Applicable in 2026?

Yes. The amendments remain part of the current UAE Labour Law framework and continue to affect labour disputes, claim limitation periods and the penalties applicable to specified employment violations in 2026.

For cross-border contracts connected with the UAE, this distinction matters from the drafting stage through to enforcement. An arbitration may be administered by DIAC, ICC, arbitrateAD or conducted under UNCITRAL Rules, while its legal seat may be onshore UAE, DIFC, ADGM or another jurisdiction entirely.

What Is International Arbitration Law?

International arbitration law is the legal framework governing the private resolution of cross-border disputes by an arbitral tribunal rather than a national court.

It covers issues such as:

• Whether the arbitration agreement is valid
• Which law governs the arbitral procedure
• How arbitrators are appointed
• What powers the tribunal has
• When courts may support or supervise the arbitration
• How the final award can be challenged
• Where and how the award can be enforced

The UNCITRAL Model Law addresses this full arbitration lifecycle, from the arbitration agreement and tribunal jurisdiction through to recognition and enforcement of the award.

When Is Arbitration Considered International Under UAE Law?

An arbitration can be international even when the proceedings take place inside the UAE.

Article 3 of Federal Law No. 6 of 2018 treats an arbitration as international in several circumstances, including where the parties have places of business in different countries, where the agreed place of arbitration or a substantial part of the contractual obligations is connected with another country, or where the subject matter of the dispute is connected with more than one country.

For example, a dispute between a UAE company and an overseas supplier may qualify as international even if Dubai is chosen as the seat and the hearings take place in the UAE.

The international character of the dispute should therefore be assessed from the parties, contract and cross-border connections rather than from the hearing location alone.

Which Law Governs International Arbitration in the UAE?

The procedural arbitration law usually depends primarily on the legal seat of arbitration.

For UAE-connected disputes, three different arbitration frameworks may be particularly relevant:

Choosing an institution such as DIAC or ICC does not by itself determine the seat. The arbitration clause should identify the seat separately.

Onshore UAE: Federal Arbitration Law

International arbitration seated in onshore UAE is generally governed by Federal Law No. 6 of 2018 Concerning Arbitration, subject to the scope and choices permitted by the legislation.

The law was amended by Federal Decree-Law No. 15 of 2023. The amendments affected matters including arbitrator requirements, procedural rules, the place and technological conduct of arbitration, and hearings. The current official text expressly records the 2023 amendment.

Businesses that need the full domestic framework can review our detailed guide to UAE Arbitration Law.

DIFC-Seated International Arbitration

Where the legal seat is the Dubai International Financial Centre, the DIFC Arbitration Law provides the principal arbitration framework and the DIFC Courts perform the relevant supervisory functions.

The core statute is DIFC Law No. 1 of 2008, as amended. The DIFC legal database continues to list the Arbitration Law within its legal framework.

The DIFC seat is distinct from the arbitral institution. A DIAC-administered or ICC-administered arbitration can, for example, have DIFC as its legal seat if the arbitration agreement provides for it.

For the specific DIFC regime, see our guide to DIFC Arbitration Law.

ADGM-Seated International Arbitration

Where the seat is the Abu Dhabi Global Market, the ADGM Arbitration Regulations 2015, as amended, provide the relevant arbitration framework.

The Regulations govern arbitral proceedings and recognition and enforcement within the ADGM framework, while the ADGM Courts perform the relevant judicial functions.

This is separate from choosing an Abu Dhabi arbitration institution. The seat and the institution answer different legal questions and should be stated clearly in the contract.

How Does the UNCITRAL Model Law Relate to UAE Arbitration Law?

The UNCITRAL Model Law is a legislative model used by jurisdictions when developing modern arbitration legislation; it is not itself the arbitration statute governing every UAE arbitration.

The Model Law covers matters such as arbitration agreements, tribunal jurisdiction, court intervention, interim measures and enforcement, and has influenced arbitration frameworks around the world.

The UAE Federal Arbitration Law is widely aligned with Model Law principles, although the applicable UAE legislation must always be read on its own terms.

UAE Federal Arbitration Law and the Model Law

Important principles reflected in the UAE framework include:

• Party autonomy in procedural matters
• Separability of the arbitration agreement
• Tribunal authority to rule on its own jurisdiction
• Equal treatment of the parties
• Tribunal control over procedure within the applicable law
• Court support for arbitration
• Limited grounds for setting aside an award

For example, Article 19 of the UAE Arbitration Law expressly allows the tribunal to rule on objections to its jurisdiction, while Article 26 requires equal treatment and a full opportunity for each party to present its case.

UNCITRAL Model Law vs UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules

The UNCITRAL Model Law and UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules serve different purposes.

UNCITRAL Model Law
A model legislative framework intended to assist states in developing arbitration laws.

UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules
Procedural rules that parties can agree to use for an arbitration.

The UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules address matters such as tribunal appointment, procedure and awards and are widely used in ad hoc as well as some administered arbitrations.

Choosing the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules therefore does not mean that the UNCITRAL Model Law automatically becomes the governing arbitration law.

Seat, Governing Law and Arbitration Rules: What Is the Difference?

The seat determines the legal home of the arbitration, the governing law of the contract determines the parties’ substantive rights, and the arbitration rules regulate how the case is conducted.

These concepts can operate together but should not be treated as interchangeable.

Seat of Arbitration

The seat is the juridical home of the arbitration.

It is important because it usually determines:

• The procedural arbitration law
• Which courts supervise the arbitration
• Where an application to set aside the award is made
• Which legal framework applies to court support and certain interim measures

The seat does not necessarily determine where the hearing physically takes place.

Governing Law of the Contract

The governing or substantive law determines the legal rules applied to the parties’ contractual rights and obligations.

For example, a contract could provide for:

• English law governing the contract
• DIFC as the seat
• ICC Rules governing the procedure

Each choice performs a different function.

Institutional or Procedural Rules

Arbitration rules regulate the conduct and administration of the proceedings.

Depending on the agreement, parties may choose rules such as:

• DIAC Arbitration Rules
• ICC Arbitration Rules
• arbitrateAD Arbitration Rules
• UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules

Institutional rules operate alongside the mandatory law of the seat rather than replacing it entirely.

Seat vs Venue

The seat is a legal concept; the venue is the physical or virtual place where a hearing or meeting occurs.

A tribunal seated in DIFC could hold a hearing elsewhere or remotely without automatically changing the legal seat.

This distinction is also reflected in current international rules. The 2026 ICC Rules, for example, allow hearings and meetings to take place at an appropriate location and permit electronic participation while separately addressing the legal place of arbitration.

What Makes an International Arbitration Agreement Valid in the UAE?

For an arbitration agreement governed by the UAE Federal Arbitration Law, the agreement must be in writing and entered into by a person with the legal authority to agree to arbitration.

Article 7 provides that the arbitration agreement must be in writing and recognises several forms of written agreement, including signed instruments and qualifying written or electronic communications.

Written Arbitration Agreement

An arbitration agreement can appear as:

• A clause within the main contract
• A separate arbitration agreement
• An exchange of qualifying written communications
• A valid incorporation by reference to another document containing an arbitration clause

The clause should clearly show that the parties intend covered disputes to be resolved through arbitration.

Authority to Agree to Arbitration

Signatory authority is particularly important under UAE law.

The person agreeing to arbitration on behalf of a company must have the required authority. This should be checked at the contract stage rather than after a dispute has already arisen.

Authority problems can later affect the validity of the arbitration agreement or the enforceability of the resulting award.

Separability of the Arbitration Clause

An arbitration clause is generally treated as legally separate from the rest of the contract.

Article 6 of the UAE Arbitration Law expressly provides that the arbitration agreement is separate from the other contractual terms, so termination or invalidity of the main contract does not automatically invalidate an otherwise valid arbitration agreement.

What Should an International Arbitration Clause Specify?

A well-drafted international arbitration clause should normally address the key choices needed to avoid procedural disputes later.

Depending on the transaction, these can include:

• Arbitral institution or procedural rules
• Legal seat of arbitration
• Governing law of the contract
• Language of arbitration
• Number of arbitrators
• Scope of disputes covered
• Appointment mechanism where necessary

These decisions should be coordinated rather than copied from unrelated contract templates. Our contract drafting and review lawyers can assess dispute-resolution clauses as part of the wider commercial agreement.

Which Arbitration Institutions and Rules Are Used in the UAE?

UAE-connected international disputes can be administered by domestic or international arbitration institutions, while parties may also choose ad hoc arbitration where appropriate.

The correct choice depends on the contract, seat, dispute profile, cost structure and likely enforcement needs.

Dubai International Arbitration Centre (DIAC)

DIAC is a major arbitration institution based in Dubai and is frequently selected for UAE and cross-border commercial disputes.

The current DIAC Arbitration Rules 2022 came into effect on 21 March 2022 and can operate with different arbitral seats where the parties or tribunal determine the seat accordingly.

A DIAC clause should therefore still specify the legal seat rather than assuming that use of DIAC automatically answers that question.

ICC Arbitration

ICC Arbitration is widely used for cross-border commercial disputes and is administered by the ICC International Court of Arbitration.

As of August 2026, the ICC Arbitration Rules 2026 are the current rules for arbitrations commenced on or after 1 June 2026 unless the parties have agreed to apply an earlier version. The 2026 Rules replaced the 2021 Rules for new cases within that scope.

Under the ICC framework, the Court administers the arbitration but does not itself decide the dispute; the arbitral tribunal renders the award.

Abu Dhabi International Arbitration Centre: arbitrateAD

The Abu Dhabi International Arbitration Centre, known as arbitrateAD, commenced operations on 1 February 2024.

Its Arbitration Rules also came into force on 1 February 2024. ADCCAC stopped accepting new cases from that date, with arbitrateAD taking responsibility for new cases under the applicable transition framework.

This is important when reviewing older UAE arbitration articles or contract clauses that still refer to ADCCAC.

Ad Hoc Arbitration Under UNCITRAL Rules

Ad hoc arbitration is conducted without relying on an arbitral institution to administer the entire case.

Parties can agree to use the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules to provide an established procedural framework for matters such as appointment of arbitrators, proceedings and awards.

Because there is no institution automatically managing every procedural step, the drafting of the arbitration clause and the appointment mechanism can become particularly important.

International Arbitration Legal Support in Dubai and the UAE

Al Ramsy Advocates advises businesses and individuals on international arbitration, arbitration agreements, cross-border disputes, arbitral proceedings, enforcement of awards, and related commercial dispute matters in the UAE.

Explore Our Arbitration Services

How Does International Arbitration Work in Practice?

International arbitration usually moves from the arbitration agreement and commencement of proceedings through tribunal formation, evidence and hearings to a final binding award.

The exact process depends on the applicable law, arbitration rules and procedural directions of the tribunal.

A typical international arbitration may involve:

1. Reviewing the arbitration agreement and jurisdiction
2. Filing a request or notice of arbitration
3. Responding to the claim
4. Constituting the arbitral tribunal
5. Establishing the procedural timetable
6. Filing statements of claim and defence
7. Producing relevant documents
8. Submitting factual and expert evidence
9. Conducting hearings where required
10. Receiving the final award

International arbitration law and practice place significant emphasis on party autonomy, procedural fairness and tribunal case management rather than one fixed procedure for every dispute.

Interim Measures and Urgent Protection

Interim measures may be necessary before the final award where a party needs urgent protection relating to assets, evidence, contractual conduct or the effectiveness of the arbitration.

The available route depends on the seat, applicable law and chosen rules. Depending on the framework, relief may be sought from the tribunal, an emergency arbitrator or a competent court.

The possibility of obtaining urgent relief should therefore be considered early rather than after the underlying risk has already materialised.

Virtual and Cross-Border Hearings

International arbitration does not require every participant to attend one physical location.

The 2023 amendments to the UAE Federal Arbitration Law expressly address the use of modern technical means in arbitration, and Article 28 permits parties or the tribunal to determine whether arbitration is conducted physically or virtually within the scope of the law.

Current institutional rules also support remote and hybrid case management, allowing cross-border disputes to be conducted more flexibly.

What Role Do UAE Courts Play in International Arbitration?

UAE courts generally support and supervise arbitration within the limits of the applicable arbitration framework rather than deciding the merits of a dispute that has been validly referred to arbitration.

Their role can include matters such as:

• Supporting tribunal constitution where required
• Addressing certain jurisdictional applications
• Granting or supporting interim measures where permitted
• Assisting with evidence or procedural matters
• Considering applications to set aside awards
• Recognising and enforcing arbitral awards

Which court has that role depends heavily on the seat.

For an onshore UAE seat, the relevant onshore courts operate under the Federal Arbitration Law. A DIFC seat engages the DIFC arbitration and court framework, while an ADGM seat engages the ADGM framework.

This is one reason why the seat should be chosen deliberately at the contract stage rather than treated as boilerplate.

How Are International Arbitral Awards Enforced in the UAE?

Foreign arbitral awards can be recognised and enforced in the UAE under the New York Convention and the applicable UAE enforcement framework, subject to the Convention and legally recognised grounds for refusing enforcement.

The UAE acceded to the New York Convention on 21 August 2006, and the Convention entered into force for the UAE on 19 November 2006.

The Convention establishes common standards for recognition of arbitration agreements and foreign or non-domestic arbitral awards.

The New York Convention

The New York Convention is one of the central legal foundations of international commercial arbitration.

Its purpose is to facilitate recognition and enforcement of foreign and non-domestic awards across contracting states while limiting the circumstances in which recognition may be refused.

This international enforcement framework is one of the main reasons arbitration is frequently chosen for contracts involving counterparties, assets or operations in several countries.

UAE-Seated Awards vs Foreign Awards

A UAE-seated award and a foreign arbitral award do not necessarily follow the same enforcement route.

For an award rendered under the UAE Federal Arbitration Law, Article 52 provides that the award is binding and has res judicata effect, while enforcement requires court confirmation in accordance with the applicable procedure.

Foreign awards may engage the New York Convention together with the relevant UAE recognition and enforcement rules.

The correct route should be determined from the seat, award, debtor location, assets and court jurisdiction involved.

Can an International Arbitral Award Be Challenged?

An arbitral award is not normally subject to a full appeal on the merits simply because one party disagrees with the tribunal’s decision.

Instead, the applicable law provides limited grounds on which an award may be set aside or recognition may be refused.

Under the UAE Federal Arbitration Law, Article 53 identifies specific grounds for annulment, including certain issues relating to the arbitration agreement, capacity, due process, tribunal composition, procedure, scope of the award and public order.

The exact challenge route depends on the seat of arbitration.

What Should Businesses Consider Before Choosing International Arbitration?

Businesses should consider enforcement, seat, governing law, rules, cost, dispute complexity and likely asset location before committing to international arbitration.

The clause should be designed around the transaction rather than added as a standard paragraph at the end of the contract.

Important questions include:

• Where is the counterparty located?
• Where are its assets likely to be?
• Which law governs the commercial relationship?
• Which seat provides an appropriate supervisory framework?
• Which institution and rules suit the dispute profile?
• Does the dispute require specialist arbitrators?
• Is the likely claim value proportionate to arbitration costs?
• Will the dispute involve several contracts or parties?
• What language should govern the proceedings?
• Is urgent interim relief likely to be important?
• How important is cross-border enforcement?

Arbitration can be particularly useful for complex international commercial disputes, but it is not automatically the best dispute-resolution method for every contract.

Where the main question is whether arbitration or court proceedings are more suitable, see our comparison of arbitration and litigation in the UAE.

Does Your Contract Involve a Cross-Border Arbitration Dispute?

Al Ramsy Advocates advises businesses, investors and international parties on arbitration agreements, jurisdiction, arbitral proceedings, evidence, hearings, awards and enforcement in UAE-connected cross-border disputes.

When Should You Speak With an International Arbitration Lawyer?

Legal advice is particularly valuable before a high-value arbitration clause is signed and as soon as a cross-border dispute begins.

Early advice can help prevent procedural mistakes that may later affect jurisdiction, evidence, interim relief or enforcement.

Professional assistance may be particularly important where:

• A high-value international contract is being negotiated
• The arbitration clause contains an unclear seat or institution
• A request or notice of arbitration has been received
• Tribunal jurisdiction is disputed
• Urgent interim relief is required
• The dispute involves several countries or contracts
• Complex expert evidence is needed
• A foreign award must be enforced in the UAE
• An award may need to be challenged
• UAE assets are relevant to an enforcement strategy

Our international arbitration lawyers in the UAE advise and represent parties in cross-border commercial arbitration from clause review and commencement through to award and enforcement.

International Arbitration Requires the Right Strategy From the Start

The effectiveness of international arbitration often depends on decisions made long before the final hearing. The seat, governing law, arbitration rules, clause wording and enforcement strategy can all affect how a dispute develops.

Al Ramsy Advocates assists UAE and international clients with cross-border arbitration strategy, proceedings and award enforcement.

Frequently Asked Questions About International Arbitration Law

What Is International Arbitration Law?

International arbitration law governs the private resolution of disputes with a cross-border element through arbitration. It covers the arbitration agreement, tribunal powers, procedure, court involvement, awards and enforcement.

The exact legal framework depends particularly on the seat of arbitration and the parties’ contractual choices.

When Is Arbitration Considered International in the UAE?

Under Article 3 of the UAE Federal Arbitration Law, arbitration can be international where the parties have places of business in different countries or where the seat, performance of substantial obligations or subject matter of the dispute has the required international connection.

An arbitration does not become domestic simply because the hearings take place in the UAE.

Is UAE Arbitration Law Based on the UNCITRAL Model Law?

The UAE Federal Arbitration Law is strongly aligned with principles found in the UNCITRAL Model Law, but the Model Law itself is not the UAE statute.

The applicable legal rules must be taken from the UAE Arbitration Law and any other relevant UAE or free-zone legislation.

What Is the Difference Between ICC and UNCITRAL Arbitration?

ICC Arbitration is institutional arbitration administered by the ICC International Court of Arbitration under the ICC Rules.

UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules are procedural rules that can be selected by parties and are widely used for ad hoc arbitration as well as certain administered proceedings. UNCITRAL itself does not operate as the administering institution in the same way as the ICC Court.

As of August 2026, the ICC Rules 2026 apply to ICC arbitrations commenced on or after 1 June 2026 unless an earlier version has been validly selected.

What Is the Difference Between the Seat and Venue of Arbitration?

The seat is the legal home of the arbitration and generally determines the procedural arbitration law and supervisory courts.

The venue is where a hearing or meeting physically takes place. A hearing can occur in another location or remotely without necessarily changing the seat.

Can Parties Choose DIFC or ADGM as the Seat of Arbitration?

Yes, parties can choose DIFC or ADGM as the legal seat where that choice is valid and appropriate for their agreement.

A DIFC seat brings the arbitration within the DIFC arbitration framework, while an ADGM seat engages the ADGM Arbitration Regulations and ADGM court framework.

Can a Foreign Arbitration Award Be Enforced in the UAE?

Foreign arbitral awards may be recognised and enforced in the UAE under the New York Convention and the applicable UAE enforcement framework, subject to the relevant legal requirements and limited grounds for refusal.

The UAE has been a party to the New York Convention since 2006.

Is International Arbitration Confidential in the UAE?

Confidentiality depends on the applicable arbitration law, institutional rules and the parties’ agreement, so it should not be assumed to operate identically in every arbitration.

For arbitrations under the UAE Federal Arbitration Law, hearings are private unless the parties agree otherwise, and Article 48 provides that arbitral awards are confidential and cannot be published in whole or in part without the parties’ written approval, subject to the statutory exception concerning publication of judicial judgments that include an award.

Institutional rules may impose additional confidentiality requirements.

Can UAE Courts Hear a Dispute Covered by an Arbitration Clause?

A valid arbitration agreement can require a dispute within its scope to proceed through arbitration rather than ordinary court litigation, but the result depends on the validity and scope of the agreement and the procedural steps taken by the parties.

UAE courts may still perform important supporting and supervisory functions relating to matters such as interim measures, tribunal jurisdiction, annulment and enforcement.

Where a dispute has already arisen, the arbitration clause and applicable seat should be reviewed before deciding whether to commence court or arbitral proceedings.

For most private-sector employment governed by the federal system, the main legal framework is Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021 Regulating Labour Relations, together with its Executive Regulation and subsequent amendments.

The first question is which employment regime applies. Mainland employment, ordinary free-zone arrangements, DIFC, ADGM, and domestic work do not all follow the same contract and dispute procedures.

What Is an Employment Contract in the UAE?

An employment contract is an agreement under which an employee works for an employer, under the employer’s supervision and direction, in return for an agreed wage.

For employees covered by the federal private-sector framework, the contract works alongside statutory employment rights. Contract wording therefore needs to be read together with the rules on wages, leave, probation, notice, termination, and end-of-service entitlements.

Al Ramsy’s guide to UAE Labour Law covers that wider framework in more detail.

Which Employment Contract Rules Apply to You?

The applicable employment contract rules depend on the legal regime governing the employer and workplace. An employee under the MOHRE system should not automatically apply the same rules to a DIFC or ADGM employment relationship.

Mainland and MOHRE-Regulated Employment

Mainland private-sector employment generally falls under the federal UAE Labour Law and the Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratisation (MOHRE) system.

The federal framework addresses matters including:

• Employment contracts.
• Wages.
• Working hours.
• Leave.
• Probation.
• Termination.
• End-of-service rights.
• Individual labour disputes.

Free Zone Employment Contracts

A free-zone employee should first identify which authority administers the employment relationship and whether a special employment regime applies.

Many free zones have their own procedures for recruitment, permits, and employment administration. Certain financial free zones—notably DIFC and ADGM—operate under separate employment regimes.

This means contracts issued through DMCC, JAFZA, RAKEZ, or another free-zone authority should not simply be treated as identical to a mainland MOHRE contract.

DIFC and ADGM Employment Contracts

DIFC and ADGM have separate employment frameworks rather than the ordinary MOHRE employment regime.

For example, DIFC employment is governed principally by DIFC Employment Law rather than Federal Decree-Law No. 33 of 2021. Contract requirements, termination rules, benefits, and dispute procedures can therefore differ.

Al Ramsy’s guide to DIFC Employment Law explains the DIFC framework separately.

Domestic workers are also governed by separate federal legislation and are outside the scope of this guide.

What Must a UAE Employment Contract Include?

A UAE employment contract should clearly identify the parties and record the essential terms of the job, including the role, workplace, wage, working arrangements, contract duration, probation, leave, and notice provisions.

Before signing, check: